LESSON  PLANS  FOR  TEACHERS 


in 


Nature-Study  Agriculture 


.BASED  UPON  THE  ILLINOIS 
STATE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 


By  ALICE  JEAN  PATTERSON 
and   LORA  M.  DEXHEIMER 


Single  Copies,  Postpaid  Sixty  Cents 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHORS 

Pantagraph   Printing  and  Stationery  Co.,  SoJt  Distributors 
BLOOMINGTON.  ILLINOIS 


Copyright,  1914 
By  ALICE  JEAN  PATTERSON 

Copyright,  1911-12 

By  JOHN  G.  COULTER 


1 '  And  he  wandered  away,  away  with  Nature  the  dear  old  nurse, 
Who  sang  to  him  night  and  day  the  rhymes  of  the  universe, 

And  when  the  day  seemed  long,  and  his  heart  began  to  fail, 

She  sang  a  more  wonderful  song,  or  told  a  more  wonderful  tale. ' ' 


PREFACE 

Two  years  ago  when  a  course  in  Nature  Study  Agriculture  became  a  part  of 
the  new  state  course  of  study  there  arose  on  the  part  of  teachers  a  demand  for 
some  special  help  in  teaching  this  subject.  To  supply  this  need  the  Lesson  Plans 
in  Nature  Study  Agriculture  were  published.  That  these  have  proved  of  value  is 
very  evident.  Both  teachers  and  superintendents  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  their 
usefulness. 

The  first  edition  is  now  exhausted  and  it  seems  wise  to  publish  a  second  edition. 
The  lessons  have  been  carefully  revised  and  a  number  that  in  the  first  edition  were 
rather  meager  have  been  rewritten  in  full.  The  arrangement  of  the  years  has 
been  changed  to  follow  each  other  consecutively  instead  of  previous  plan  of  group- 
ing into  odd  and  even  years.  This  will  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  book. 

The  lessons  are  planned  expressly  for  busy  teachers  and  especially  for  those 
who  have  had  little  or  no  training  in  nature  study  and  elementary  agriculture.  They 
include  how  to  obtain  material,  what  to  have  the  children  observe,  how  to  report  the 
observations,  how  to  conduct  simple  experiments,  etc.  At  the  same  time  sufficient 
information  is  given  with  each  lesson  to  enable  the  teacher  to  gain  the  fundamental 
facts  that  she  should  know  in  order  to  present  the  lesson  successfully. 

RELATION  TO  THE  CHILDREN. — The  book  presupposes  that  the  work  in  the 
schools  will  be  real  nature  study,  that  the  children  will  handle  and  observe  real 
objects,  will  perform  experiments,  will  work  with  their  hands  and  think  while  they 
work.  This  will  bring  them  into  the  right  relation  with  their  environment  so  that 
the  nature-world,  their  inheritance,  shall  become  their  own  to  understand  and  to 
love.  This  work  will  enable  them  also  to  see  beauty  and  value  in  everyday  common 
places  especially  as  they  put  to  the  test  some  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  life  and  of 
physical  phenomena,  or  as  they  experience  the  joy  that  comes  with  beautifying  their 
own  school  and  home  grounds. 

RELATION  TO  THE  TEACHER. — The  teacher  as  well  as  the  pupils  is  a  learner 
in  this  work.  No  matter  how  much  she  may  know  about  nature  objects  she  realizes 
that  there  is  still  much  to  be  learned.  There  is  no  "finis"  written  in  the  book  of 
nature.  Every  day  she  finds  new  interest  in  the  wayside  plants,  in  every  flying  and 
crawling  insect,  in  the  birds,  and  trees,  and  in  the  farm  and  garden  crops.  Her 
life  is  enriched  and  broadened  both  by  her  own  contact  with  the  nature  world  and 
by  her  efforts  to  bring  her  pupils  into  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  this  world. 

RELATION  TO  PARENTS. — Since  the  nature  study  deals  with  the  environment 
of  the  children  it  is  a  strong  factor  in  keeping  home  and  school  in  close  touch  with 
each  other.  The  material  used  is  the  material  of  the  home,  the  field  and  shop; 
parents  are  interested  because  the  children  come  to  them  with  questions  or  informa- 
tion about  objects  and  phenomena  that  they  constantly  use  in  their  daily  work. 
The  special  days  suggested  by  the  course  such  as  Harvest  Festival,  Corn  Day  and 
Arbor  Day,  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  to  invite  the  parents  to  the  school  in  order 
that  they  may  see  what  the  children  are  accomplishing  in  the  work. 

CORRELATION  WITH  OTHER  SUBJECTS.— Many  rural  teachers  find  lack  of 
time  the  principal  obstacle  to  nature-study  and  agricultural  work.  The  daily  pro- 
gram is  already  full.  Another  subject  may  be  the  last  straw.  But  with  careful 
correlation  we  believe  that  the  nature  study  lessons  will  make  the  other  work  more 
interesting  and  more  effective.  As  the  course  is  planned  a  part  of  the  language 
work  is  based  upon  the  nature-study  topics.  Much  of  the  arithmetic  may  be 
correlated  with  the  nature-study.  This  is  also  true  of  the  drawing.  In  the  first 
and  second  grades  the  constructive  work  offers  excellent  opportunity  for  correlation. 
Indeed,  much  of  the  constructive  work  may  find  its  most  interesting  motivation  in 
connection  with  the  doll  house,  the  barn,  poultry  yard,  etc.  The  plan  of  correlation 
ought  to  make  possible  the  working  out  of  most  of  the  course  as  outlined  for  the 
first  six  years. 


339485 


AGRICULTURAL  PHASE  OF  WORK.— The  course  is  essentially  agricultural 
in  its  material  and  aims  because  it  deals  with  the  birds  and  trees,  with  flowers 
and  garden  plants,  with  farm  crops  and  animals,  with  soil  and  machinery,  all  of 
which  have  to  do  with  agriculture.  It  does  not  pretend  to  go  into  the  science  of 
agriculture  as  high  schools  and  colleges  do,  but  it  aims  to  make  a  good  foundation 
for  this  more  advanced  work.  It  is  good  agriculture  as  far  as  it  goes.  It  helps  the 
boys  and  girls  to  appreciate  the  farm  and  its  surroundings  as  nothing  else  can  do, 
and  at  the  same  time  becomes  an  important  factor  in  promoting  better  methods  of 
agriculture  in  our  state. 

PHYSIOLOGY. — The  part  of  the  course  called  physiology  has  for  its  chief  aim 
the  improvement  of  health  conditions.  The  children  should  be  led  to  form  habits 
that  make  for  good  health,  to  become  sensitive  to  unsanitary  conditions,  and  feel 
some  responsibility  in  making  conditions  better.  It  is  only  thru  persistent  effort  and 
constant  application  of  the  principles  learned  that  right  habits  will  be  formed. 

ALICE  JEAN  PATTEESON. 
Normal,  111.,  May  24,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


Preface  3 

Table  of  Contents 5 

Lesson  plans  for  First  Year 7 

Lesson  plans  for  Second  Year   17 

Lesson  plans  for  Third  Year    28 

Lesson  plans  for  Fourth  Year   42 

Lesson  plans  for  Fifth  Year    61 

Lesson  plans  for  Sixth   Year    73 

Lesson  plans  for  Seventh  Year    98 

Lesson  plans  for  Eighth  Year   136 

Alphabetical  Subject  Index 163 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  FIRST  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  SEPTEMBER. —  (To  be  used  in  September  of  odd  numbered 
t/ears,  alternating  with  second  year  work.  Two  periods  of  each  week  devoted  to 
actual  contact  with  materials  studied.  The  three  periods  of  language  to  ~be  closely 
correlated  with  the  nature-study.)  The  home  and  who  lives  there.  What  does  father 
da?  Mother?  Sisters?  Brothers?  Hoiu  do  you  help?  Rooms  in  the  house;  uses 
of  each;  furnishings.  Make  a  doll  house  of  pasteboard  or  box;  cut  furniture,  rugs, 
utensils;  preserve  distinction  of  rooms.  The  school  house;  rooms,  furniture,  uses, 
care.  Children  assist  in  keeping  room  in  order;  learn  use  of  damp  cloth  in  cleaning; 
a  place  for  everything.  Other  public  places, — church,  store,  depot,  town  house,  bank, 
factory;  what  is  done  in  each? 

(Eighteen  lessons  planned.  These  need  not  be  given  in  just  the  order  used 
here.) 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE.— The  Home,  2  lessons;  The  Doll's  House,  5  lessons; 
The  School  and  Other  Public  Places,  2  lessons;  The  Garden,  3  lessons;  Birds,  2 
lessons;  Trees,  2  lessons;  Poems,  2  lessons. 

OUTDOOR  VISIT'S. — In  addition  to  the  work  outlined  in  the  course,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  pupils  visit  and  identify  a  few  common  trees  of  the  neighborhood, 
observe  and  name  some  of  the  common  birds,  visit  a  garden  and  compare  it  with 
that  at  home. 

THE  HOME. — Who  lives  at  home?  Who  helps  to  make  it  comfortable  and 
pleasant?  What  things  does  mother  do?  (Ideas  of  preparation  of  food,  clothing, 
cleanliness,  comfort,  pleasure,  helpfulness,  will  be  brought  out,  each  child  being 
encouraged  to  contribute  his  share  to  the  conversation.) 

What  is  father's  work?  (Ideas  of  earning,  of  further  contact  with  the  out- 
side world  will  be  added.) 

What  do  you  children  do  at  home?  How  do  you  help?  How  do  you  play? 
(In  addition  to  accounts  of  daily  tasks  and  pleasures,  the  idea  of  the  necessity 
of  co-operation  and  of  service  is  brought  out.) 

These  talks  should  do  much  to  make  the  beginners  feel  "at  home"  in  the 
strange  environment — to  make  a  unity  of  interest  between  home  and  school — and 
to  encourage  and  preserve  spontaneity  and  freedom  of  oral  expression.  In  this 
connection  pupils  may  learn  the  poem  "I  love  you,  mother,"  from  Mrs.  McMurry's 
' '  Treetop  and  Meadow, ' '  or  they  may  learn  and  dramatize  ' '  This  is  the  way  we 
wash  our  clothes,  etc. ' ' 

THE  DOLL'S  HOUSE. — This  follows  easily  the  talks  about  the  home.  The 
playhouse  may  be  made  very  simply — consisting  of  only  one  or  two  rooms — or  more 
elaborately  with  "cellar"  and  "upstairs."  In  any  case  it  may  be  made  of  a 
large  pasteboard  box  with  partitions,  or  of  smaller  boxes  fastened  in  any  desired 
arrangement  with  glue  or  paper  fasteners.  The  entire  front  should  be  left  open 
for  easy  access  by  the  ' '  owners. ' '  If  preferred  a  wooden  box  may  be  used,  with 
roof,  partitions  and  window  openings  added  by  older  pupils. 

Furnishing  should  be  made  by  the  little  people  themselves  and  may  be  simple 
or  more  elaborate  as  time  permits.  Chairs,  tables,  beds  and  cupboards  may  be 
made  from  cardboard  or  folded  from  paper,  which  material  can  be  obtained  at  a 
printing  office.  Worst's  Construction  is  helpful  in  this  connection.  Rugs  and  mat- 
ting may  be  woven  from  cord,  rags,  or  raffia.  Curtains  may  be  cut  from  scraps 
of  material  brought  from  homes.  Wallpaper  njay  be  made  at  school  or  furnished 
from  scraps  left  from  the  home  ' '  housecleaning. ' ' 

Part  of  this  work  may  be  done  as  seat  work.  Some,  like  the  formal  construc- 
tion, must  be  done  under  the  teacher's  direction  to  secure  worthy  results  and  correct 
habits  and  ideals.  Original,  volunteer  work  should  be  encouraged,  and  surprising 
interest  and  results  will  follow. 

The  pupils  should  be  held  responsible  for  keeping  this  small  dwelling  in  order, 
and  through  that  work  some  valuable  habits  may  be  formed.  They  should  learn 
to  dust  properly;  to  keep  the  playhouse  and  their  own  desks  neat,  orderly  and  free 


8 

from  dust;  to  clean  the  blackboards  without  filling  the  air  with  chalk  dust;  to 
clean  erasers  out  of  doors  instead  of  at  the  window,  and  the  reason  why;  to  clean 
mud  from  shoes  before  entering  house,  etc. 

THE  SCHOOLHOUSE. — The  foregoing  lessons  prepare  the  way  for  some  ideas 
of  public  institutions:  Why  do  we  have  a  schoolhouse?  Who  builds  it?  Who 
should  help  care  for  it?  How  can  this  be  done?  Some  system  of  appointing  monitors 
may  prove  helpful  in  promoting  ideals  and  habits  of  helpful  service. 

OTHEE  PUBLIC  PLACES. — Activities  growing  out  of  home  and  school  inter- 
ests will  rapidly  include  a  wider  field,  and  the  function  of  stores,  depot,  church, 
factory  may  be  discussed.  In  such  talks  the  ideas  of  interdependence  and  the 
spirit  of  service  should  be  made  prominent.  Illustrations  in  free  cutting  or  with 
pencil  to  represent  the  various  places,  together  with  roads  and  streets,  will  prove 
interesting. 

THE  GAEDEN. — During  this  month  a  nearby  garden  should  be  visited  if  the 
school  has  none,  and  the  vegetables  and  flowers  recognized  and  named.  Questions 
like  these  will  reveal  and  recall  facts  of  interest:  What  grows  in  your  garden? 
Who  planted  and  cared  for  it?  What  have  you  got  from  it?  What  things  have 
helped  the  plants  to  grow?  (Sun,  rain,  care,  good  soil.)  What  work  has  been 
done  in  the  garden?  Why?  What  things  in  it  are  not  yet  ready  for  use? 

If  possible,  the  children  should  have  the  pleasure  of  gathering  flowers,  both 
wild  and  cultivated,  for  school'  room  decoration.  They  should  be  shown  how  to 
pick  them  with  stems  suitable  for  bouquets,  and  can  be  taught  that  most  flowers 
look  best  if  each  kind  is  put  in  a  vase  by  itself. 

Vegetables  and  flowers  may  be  cut  and  colored,  or  pictures  cut  from  catalogs 
and  pasted  in  scrap  books. 

BIEDS. — Opportunity  should  be  found  to  observe  whatever  birds  frequent  the 
neighborhood — especially  robins  and  blackbirds.  What  are  they  doing?  Find  out 
what  they  eat.  Look  for  different  foods  birds  can  eat.  What  have  the  birds  done 
in  summer?  Can  you  find  any  young  birds?  Pupils  relate  personal  observation  of 
bird  life  during  summer.  Keep  a  shallow  pan  filled  with  water  where  birds  can 
find  it.  Use  outline  pictures  of  birds  to  color,  or  cut  them  free-hand. 

TEEES. — At  least  one  visit  to  become  more  intimately  acquainted  with  one 
or  two  familiar  trees  should  be  made  this  month.  Find  a  tree  whose  name  you 
know.  Where  are  others  like  it?  What  about  it  helps  you  to  remember  it?  Eecall 
how  it  looked  last  winter.  When  did  its  leaves  appear?  Why  do  we  like  trees? 
Whom  do  they  help  besides  people?  (Nesting  places  for  birds  and  squirrels,  shade 
for  animals,  etc.) 

Tear  tree-pictures  from  paper  and  color  them.  Make  borders  of  leaf  shapes 
studied,  as  elm,  maple,  oak. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  OCTOBEE. — Make  a  cardboard  wall  chart  to  show  weather 
for  each  'month.  Make  a  blank  calendar  form  and,  on  each  school  day,  paste  in  a 
colored  disc  showing  kind  of  day,— yellow  for  sunny,  gray  for  cloudy,  purple  or  blue 
for  rainy,  and  sprinkled  with  diamond  dust  for  snow.  In  margin  make  sketch 
appropriate  to  month.  Children  gradually  learn  days  of  week,  character  of  month, 
names  of  seasons,  holidays,  birthdays,  etc. 

What  the  garden  contributes  to  our  food.  Visit  garden  to  note  autumn  condi- 
tion, harvesting;  effect  of  frost.  Collection  and  simple  study  of  common  vegetables 
which  grow  above  ground;  below  ground;  draw  and  color  a  few.  How  stored  for 
winter?  Provisions  for  food  storage  in  doll  house.  Where  we  get  vegetables  when 
we  have  no  garden;  where  the  grocer  obtains  his  supply;  how  he  keeps  them. 
Similarly,  food  we  obtain  from  farm  crops.  From  corn, — breakfast  foods,  corn  meal, 
corn  starch,  hominy,  popcorn.  Identification  and  collection  of  samples.  Similar 
study  of  wheat  and  oats  products. 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE. — Calendar,  1  lesson;  Garden,  5  lessons;  Trees,  2 
lessons;  Birds,  2  lessons;  Food  Charts  and  Study,  4  lessons;  Construction,  2  lessons; 
Poems,  2  lessons. 


9 

THE  WEATHEE. — A  few  moments  each  day  devoted  to  a  study  of  weather 
conditions  will  help  to  make  the  children's  observations  definite,  and  will  give  them 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  natural  phenomena  and  their  effects.  The  calendar 
form  may  be  drawn  upon  the  blackboard,  or  upon  a  large  sheet  of  cardboard,  and 
records  made  as  suggested  above.  (Colored  paper  for  this  and  many  other  school 
purposes  may  be  obtained  of  Thomas  Charles  Co.,  Chicago,  111.)  If  the  blackboard 
is  used  colored  crayon  will  serve.  If  the  calendar  is  placed  upon  a  north  wall,  the 
pupils  can  very  early  learn  to  use  arrows  to  indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
which  should  be  found  by  careful  observation. 

Pupils  will  greatly  enjoy  the  poem,  " October's  Bright  Blue  Weather"  in  this 
connection. 

THE  GARDEN. — The  object  of  the  first  visit  should  be  to  find  and  name  all 
plants  which  contribute  to  our  food  supply.  The  children  should  tell  how  each  is 
to  be  harvested,  and  if  possible  to  be  given  an  opportunity  to  share  in  the  work. 
The  effects  of  frost  should  be  carefully  noted.  Try  to  see  how  long  a  list  of 
vegetables  can  be  made  from  actual  acquaintance  and  contact.  The  names  may  be 
kept  in  two  lists,  to  distinguish  those  which  grow  above  and  below  ground.  A  visit 
to  a  well-stocked  cellar  (noting  the  various  commodities  which  are  stored,  together 
with  different  methods  of  storing)  will  prove  a  valuable  lesson.  Pupils  may  then 
make  boxes  for  doll  house  cellar,  and  fill  them  with  real  vegetables,  or  make  imita- 
tion in  clay.  If  the  latter,  they  may  be  colored  with  ordinary  water  colors.  If 
time  permits  it  is  well  now  to  cut  paper  dolls  or  make  some  clay  dolls  to  inhabit 
this  finished  dwelling. 

Study  of  the  world  beyond  home  and  school  may  continue  by  discussion  of 
the  grocer's  stock,  paying  especial  attention  to  those  supplies  which  come  from 

Gardens  like  our  own.     Where  does  he  get  so  many  vegetables?     Why  and  how  does 
e  keep  them?     Picture  the  farmer's  wagon  loaded  with  vegetables  from  the  gar- 
den.    The  grocer's  delivery  wagon,  which  brings  them  to  some  who  have  no  gar- 
dens. 

Valuable  information,  gathered  at  first  hand,  can  be  gained  concerning  the 
seeds  of  the  various  vegetables.  In  many  cases  the  problems  must  be  left  unsolved, 
but  a  wholesome  attitude  of  inquiry  will  be  secured  which  may  often  result  in  per- 
sonal investigation  by  the  small  ' '  scientists. ' ' 

FOOD  FEOM  THE  FIELDS. — What  foods  do  the  farm  fields  give  us?  Corn, 
wheat,  oats.  Pupils  should  bring  samples  of  various  kinds  of  each  grain,  samples  of 
products  made  from  each,  together  with  pictures  illustrating  the  uses  of  each.  Very 
interesting  charts  can  be  made  showing  all  these  facts.  Manufactured  products  may 
be  put  in  tiny  bottles  and  fastened  to  the  large  cardboard  sheet  with  cord,  and  the 
pictures  may  be  pasted  on. 

Enough  attention  should  be  given  to  autumn  flowers,  both  wild  and  cultivated, 
to  see  that  pupils  learn  the  names  of  a  few  common  varieties;  and  that  they  are 
helped  to  appreciate  their  beauty  both  in  and  out  of  doors.  Opportunity  may  be 
found  for  lessons  in  coloring  and  in  tasteful  arrangement, — the  flower  of  the  thistle, 
for  example,  makes  a  very  pretty  unit  for  decorating  a  border  for  a  book-cover. 

TREES. — In  October  the  leaves  begin  to  color  and  fall.  Individual  trees 
noted  last  month  should  be  observed  again.  What  changes  can  we  find?  Any 
further  marks  of  recognition?  Gather  some  twigs  and  see  how  easily  the  leaves 
may  be  shaken  off.  Look  carefully  at  the  place  on  the  twig  from  which  the  leaf 
has  dropped.  What  do  you  see? 

Carefully  gather  and  press  brightly  colored  leaves  for  use  indoors.  Make  a 
border  of  them  along  the  top  of  the  blackboard,  pin  them  on  sash-curtains,  etc.  Make 
a  book  and  paste  in  all  pretty  kinds  of  leaves  you  know.  Write  the  name  of  each 
neatly.  Rake  fallen  leaves  in  home  or  school  yard.  Learn  Stevenson 's  ' l  Seasons. ' ' 

BIRDS. — Which  ones  are  here  now?  Which  that  you  have  seen  are  not  here 
now?  Why?  What  food  can  they  find  now?  Where  do  birds  stay  at  night?  What 
troubles  or  dangers  come  to  them  at  this  season  ?  Try  to  see  which  ones  stay  longest. 
Cut  pictures  of  flocks  flying  south. 

CONSTRUCTION  WORK. — Sage  and  Cooley's  OCCUPATIONS  FOR  LITTLE 
FINGERS  is  recommended  as  a  guide  for  the  construction  work  done  in  this  month. 


10 
NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE    FOE   NOVEMBER. — Continue    chart   begun   in   October.      Thanks- 
Outdoor  studies. — Note  changes  in  trees,  gardens,  -fields;  in  outdoor  activities. 
Foods  from  farm  crops. — Collect  samples  of  various  forms  made  from   corn, 
wheat,  oats. 

Doll's  house. — Make  more  furniture,  curtains,  wall-paper,  etc. 

The  pumpkin  or  the   squash. — Its  parts;   how  it   is  prepared  for  pies;  how  to 

Out-of-door  work. — What  birds  can  you  see  now?     What  do  they  eat?     What 
has  happened  to  the  trees?     How  can  you  now   recognize   them?     What  is  being 
.  done  in  the  fields? 

THE  PUMPKIN. — Have  a  fine  ripe  pumpkin  at  school.  Where  have  you  seen 
pumpkins  growing?  What  do  we  call  the  plant?  How  large  is  the  vine?  The  leaf? 
The  flower?  Tell  what  you  remember  of  the  flower.  Where  are  pumpkins  often 
planted?  Tell  how  pumpkins  look  when  small.  What  helps  them  grow? 

Why  do  we  raise  pumpkins?  What  animals  eat  them?  How  are  they  fed? 
How  do  we  like  pumpkins?  How  are  they  prepared  for  pie?  What  happens  if 
they  are  left  in  the  field  until  frost  comes?  How  can  we  keep  them  for  later  use? 
How  may  people  have  pumpkin  pie  who  cannot  get  fresh  pumpkins? 

What  must  we  do  for  a  crop  next  year?  Let  pupils  remove  seeds,  dry  them, 
and  make  envelopes  in  which  to  keep  them  all  winter.  When  cut,  notice  skin,  flesh, 
arrangement  of  seeds,  coloring. 

What  fun  may  we  have  with  pumpkins?  On  what  night?  Tell  a  Halloween 
story.  What  kind  of  pranks  are  good  fun  for  everybody?  How  can  we  make  a 
Jacko 'lantern?  If  class  is  not  too  large,  let  the  children  make  one,  all  working 
together,  at  seat-work  period.  Or,  each  pupil  may  make  one  of  clay,  coloring 
when  dry. 

Paint  pumpkins  for  drawing  lessons.     Add  eyes,  etc.,  to  make  a  "face." 

Bring  a  squash  to  school.  Compare  with  pumpkin  as  to  shape,  size,  color, 
hardness,  place  and  method  of  growth,  use,  "keeping"  qualities,  manner  of  cook- 
ing. Save  seeds.  How  distinguish  them  from  pumpkin  seeds? 

Paint  a  squash  and   a   pumpkin  to   note   differences.     Cut   them    from   paper. 

THANKSGIVING. — What  holiday  comes  this  month?  Why  do  we  have  Thanks- 
giving? Various  answers  will  be  given,  by  the  pupils,  chiefly  concerning  the 
Thanksgiving  dinner.  These  provide  a  point  of  departure  for  some  review  of 
their  knowledge  of  garden  products.  Name  the  things  we  may  have  for  Thanks- 
giving dinner  which  grow  in  the  gardens  or  fields.  Which  of  these  come  from  our 
own  farms?  Which  are  grown  in  far-away  places? 

Tell  the  story  of  the  Pilgrims'  Thanksgiving.  If  a  program  is  given  this  story 
may  be  simply  dramatized. 

Let  the  pupils  mold,  in  clay,  fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  Thanksgiving  dinner 
table,  keeping  proportion  in  size.  Color  them,  if  convenient.  Set  the  table  in  the 
doll 's  house. 

Mention  all  the  kinds  of  food  that  are  made  from  corn.  From  wheat.  From 
oats.  How  are  the  different  ones  prepared?  How  are  they  cooked?  Bring  samples 
for  the  doll's  house.  Make  such  furnishings  for  the  doll's  house  as  are  needed 
for  storing  food,  i.  e.,  cupboards,  boxes,  etc. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER.— The  Weather— Changes  since  opening  of  fa}l 
term.  Length  of  days,  position  of  sun.  Effect  of  cold  upon  home  activities, 
school  sports. 

How  we  keep  warm  in  winter.  Clothing — kinds,  how  distinguish  each?  Make 
collections  of  pieces  of  cotton,  woolen  and  silk  cloths.  Sources  of  material  for 
clothing.  Describe  a  visit  to  a  dry  goods  store.  Who  buys  our  clothes,  who  makes 
them.  Clothing  of  primitive  people.  Care  of  our  clothing. 

How  we  keep  warm  in  winter.  Clothing — kinds,  how  distinguish  each?  Make 
collections  of  pieces  of  cotton,  woolen  and  silk  cloths.  Sources  of  material  for 


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clotlnng.    Describe  a  visit  to  a  dry  goods  store.     Who  buys  our  clothes,  who  makes 
than.     Clothing  of  primitive  people.     Care  of  our  clothing. 

Christmas  tree.  Simple  study  of  evergreen.  Make  trimmings  and  gifts  for  a 
Ch'-istmas  tree  in  the  doll's  house. 

THE  SEASON. — What  season  have  we  now?  Name  all  the  signs  of  winter 
that  you  can.  Short  days,  cold  weather,  snow,  ice,  frozen  earth,  leafless  trees,  brown 
grass.  What  birds  are  gone?  Which  are  here?  Put  out  food  and  learn  if  they 
eat  it.  Fasten  some  suet  in  a  tree  where  you  can  watch  it,  and  see  if  the  birds 
eat  it. 

Do  you  get  up  in  time  to  see  the  sun  rise?  Where  does  it  rise?  At  what  time? 
When  and  where  does  it  set? 

What  difference  does  the  cold  weather  make  in  our  work?  In  our  play?  To 
the  farm  animals? 

CLOTHING. — What  difference  does  winter  make  in  our  clothing?  Of  what 
is  our  warm  clothing  made?  Where  does  cotton  vgrow?  From  where  do  we  get 
wool  ?  Identify  cotton  and  woolen  materials  among  children 's  garments.  Have 
samples  of  each  brought  to  class.  Note  use  of  fur,  also. 

Too  heavy  clothing  should  not  be  worn  in  a  warm  room.  Comfortable  wraps 
are  necessary  out  of  doors.  Too  heavy  wraps  should  not  be  worn  when  we  are 
playing  actively.  We  should  not  sit  with  wet  clothing  on.  How  can  children  try 
to  avoid  having  wet  feetl 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  keep  wraps  carefully  hung  up,  to  keep  their  rubbers 
in  proper  places,  to  clean  their  shoes  before  entering  the  school  house,  to  avoid 
unnecessary  soiling  of  the  clothing  while  at  school. 

A  discussion  of  the  kinds  and  sources  of  the  clothing  of  Indians,  Eskimos, 
and  other  primitive  peoples,  will  give  a  basis  for  a  practical  discussion  of  the  need 
of  keeping  the  clothing  and  the  body  clean,  and  will  aid  in  establishing  hygienic 
habits. 

CHRISTMAS. — What  do  we  do  to  make  Christmas  a  pleasant  time?  What 
trees  do  we  use  for  Christmas  trees?  Why?  Where  have  you  seen  evergreens 
growing?  If  you  can,  notice  their  needles,  to  see  if  they  are  all  alike.  What  do 
children  like  at  Christmas  time?  Try  to  have  a  tiny  tree  or  a  branch  to  decorate 
for  the  doll's  house.  Consult  the  Course  of  Study  in  Construction  for  suggestions 
for  making  decorations  and  gifts,  and  in  Language  for  appropriate  poems  and 
stories. 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOR  JANUARY. — The  weather,  as  last  month.  How  our  homes 
and  schoolrooms  are  kept  warm.  Storm  doors,  etc.  Trees  as  windbreaks.  Kinds 
of  fuel.  Source  and  supply  of  wood  and  coal.  Distinguish  hard  and  soft  wood. 
Hard  and  soft  coal.  Make  bins,  and  put  fuel  supply  in  doll's  house. 

Need  and  importance  of  fresh  air.  How  to  secure  it  indoors.  Deep  breathing, 
good  positions,  sitting  and  standing.  Cleanliness — of  clothing,  of  body,  of  surround- 
ings. How  to  prevent  and  remove  dust  and  dirt.  Care  of  pencils,  books,  etc. 

THE  SEASON. — What  do  we  call  this  season?  What  things  make  it  pleasant? 
What  things  do  we  not  like  so  well?  Keep  a  record  of  stormy  and  pleasant  days. 

What  must  we  do  in  winter  to  keep  warm?  How  many  ways  do  you  know 
for  heating  houses?  What  do  we  burn  in  stoves  and  furnaces?  Where  do  the 
wood  and  coal  come  from?  Which  kind  of  wood  burns  best?  What  kind  of  coal 
do  we  have?  What  is  the  difference?  Can  you  build  a  fire?  Tell  how  it  should 
be  done.  Bring  some  samples  of  different  kinds  of  wood  and  coal.  Make  some 
bins  for  the  cellar  of  the  doll's  house  and  fill  with  various  kinds  of  fuel. 

What  besides  fires  helps  keep  our  houses  warm?  (Storm  doors,  windows, 
porches.)  In  what  ways  do  trees  protect  us  in  winter? 

PHYSIOLOGY. — What  important  thing  besides  food  and  water  do  we  need 
to  keep  alive?  Where  is  the  air?  How  do  we  know?  How  does  air  enter  the 
body?  What  makes  the  air  in  a  room  impure?  Air  that  has  been  used  by  our 
lungs  for  breathing  is  not  clean,  just  as  water  which  has  been  used  for  washing 
is  not  clean.  How  can  we  tell  if  the  air  of  a  room  is  not  pure  and  clean?  (One 


12 

way  is  to  notice  the  bad  odor  when  one  has  just  come  in  from,  the  fresh  air  outside.) 
How  can  we  keep  fresh  air  in  our  homes  and  school?  (In  pleasant  weather  keep 
doors  and  windows  open.  In  cold  weather  fill  the  rooms  frequently  with  fresh  air 
from  outside,  open  windows  slightly,  to  avoid  cold  drafts.)  Teach  pupils,  by 
example,  how  to  ventilate  the  school  room. 

How  may  we  help  the  lungs  to  do  their  work  well?  (Plenty  of  exercise  out 
of  doors,  erect  sitting  and  standing  positions,  deep  breathing  of  pure  air.) 

If  our  bodies  and  clothing  are  not  clean,  they  do  much  to  make  the  air  of 
our  rooms  impure/  How  often  should  we  bathe?  How  can  we  keep  faces,  hands, 
nails,  hair,  clean?  How  keep  our  school  materials  clean?  (Keep  pencils  out  of 
mouth,  avoid  wetting  fingers  to  turn  leaves  of  books.  Keep  desks  dusted  with 
damp  cloth,  etc.) 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  FEBRUARY. — The  calendar.  The  birthdays  of  Washington, 
Lincoln. 

Sources  of  food  in  winter,  how  and  where  stored.  Describe  a  visit  to  a  grocery 
store  in  winter.  Describe  various  ways  in  which  foods  are  cooked — boiling,  baking, 
etc. 

The  cow  as  the  source  of  our  milk  supply.  Its  food,  habits,  care,  especially 
in  winter.  Care  of  milk,  importance  of  cleanliness?  Its  various  uses?  How  butter 
is  made.  Milk  supply  of  city. 

PHYSIOLOGY. — Good  things  for  children  to  eat  for  breakfast,  dinner,  supper, 
for  school  lunch.  Eight  habits  of  eating  and  drinking.  Care  of  teeth,  table  manners, 
regularity  and  temperance  in  eating  and  drinking. 

THE  CALENDAR. — How  many  days  in  this  month?  How  many  weeks?  In 
what  season  is  it?  Keep  record  of  clear  and  cloudy  days.  Record  birthdays  of 
Washington,  Lincoln,  Longfellow. 

WINTER  FOOD  SUPPLY. — Make  lists  of  the  foods  we  eat  in  winter.  Which 
have  been  stored  since  summer?  How?  Where?  What  foods  come  to  us  from 
far  away?  Who  sells  them  to  us?  Describe  a  visit  to  the  grocery  store  in  winter. 

In  how  many  ways  are  foods  cooked?  Which  are  baked?  Boiled?  Fried? 
Toasted?  Which  are  best  for  us? 

Name  foods  that  are  best  for  children  to  eat  for  breakfast.  For  dinner.  For 
supper.  What  things  make  good  school  lunches?  (Teacher  should  give  simple 
facts  regarding  foods.) 

If  our  food  is  to  make  our  bodies  grow  and  be  strong,  there  is  something 
for  us  to  do  after  it  is  prepared  for  us.  (See  Health  Lessons  for  November  and 
December.) 

THE  COW. — Think  of  all  the  useful  things  we  get  from  the  cow.  Make  a 
list  of  them.  Where  do  cows  live  in  winter?  How  are  they  sheltered?  What  do 
they  eat?  How  provided  with  water?  Describe  the  barn  in  which  cows  are  kept. 
When  is  the  milking  done?  What  is  first  done  with  the  milk?  Where  is  it  kept? 
How  must  it  be  cared  for?  Why  should  milk  be  kept  very  clean?  Why  kept  cool? 

How  do  people  in  cities  get  milk?  How  is  it  prepared  and  carried  to  them? 
Why  should  they  wish  to  have  it  kept  clean?  How  can  it  be  done? 

What  foods  are  made  from  milk?  Tell  how  butter  is  made.  Have  you  seen 
cottage  cheese  made  at  home? 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOR  MARCH. — The  weather.— Note  changes  in  length  of  days,  in 
temperature,  in  a/mount  of  clothing.  Is  there  as  much  snow  as  there  has  been? 
What  things  show  the  coming  of  spring? 

Animal  Pets. — Kinds.     Their  names,  habits,  shelter,  care;   how  secured. 

The  Cat;  its  food,  care,  habits.  Its  means  of  protection,  usefulness,  care  of 
young.  Wild  relatives. 

The  Wind. — What  the  wind  is;   what  it  does,  harmful  and  helpful? 

THE  SEASON. — At  what  time  does  the  sun  rise?  Where?  Notice  when  and 
where  it  sets.  How  have  these  facts  changed  since  Christmas?  Is  there  as  much 


13 

snow  as  there  has  been?  Are  we  having  more  cold,  or  warm  days  I  What  changes 
are  we  making  in  our  clothing?  Keep  on  the  blackboard  a  list  of  the  things  that 
tell  that  Spring  is  coming.  Watch  for  new  signs  each  day. 

AXIMAL  PETS. — What  pet  animal  have  you  at  home?  What  is  its  name! 
How  do  you  feed  it?  Where  does  it  stay  at  night?  In  the  daytime?  Can  it  do 
any  tricks?  How  does  it  learn?  Why  do  you  keep  it? 

THE  CAT. — Why  do  we  have  cats  about  the  home?  What  different  things 
do  they  eat?  How  do  they  drink?  How  keep  clean?  How  keep  warm? 

Why  can  a  cat  move  so  quietly?  Watch  a  cat's  eyes  in  bright  and  in  dim 
light.  What  are  a  cat's  whiskers  for?  Watch  its  ears  and  nose,  when  it  is  wait- 
ing for  a  mouse. 

What  different  noises  can  a  cat  make?  What  do  they  mean?  How  does  a 
cat  play?  Where  sleep? 

What  enemies  has  a  cat?  How  can  she  protect  herself?  What  harm  may 
cats  do?  Who  are  the  wild  relatives  of  the  cat? 

THE  WIXD. — What  is  the  wind?  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  it  blows? 
How  can  we  tell  that  it  blows?  Make  a  long  list  of  ways. 

What  does  a  cold  wind  do?  A  warm  wind?  What  does  the  wind  do  to  wet 
clothes,  muddy  roads,  etc.  How  does  the  wind  work  for  us?  How  help  us  play? 
What  harm  may  the  wind  do?  Make  kites,  pin  wheels,  paper  boats.  Learn 
Stevenson's  "The  Wind." 

APRIL 

(Twenty  lessons  planned.) 

APEIL. — Springtime  activities  at  home;  house  cleaning;  putting  up  screens 
and  awnings;  cleaning  yard.  Eepairs;  identification  and  uses  of  a  few  carpenter's 
tools.  Clean  doll  house  and  arrange  for  spring. 

Plant  nasturtium  in  egg  shells  and  in  window  boxes  at  school  and  home;  later 
transplant  to  garden,  border,  or  fence.  Advantages  of  early  planting  indoors. 
Make  yard  and  garden  for  doll  house.  Care  of  house  plants;  what  plants  need, 
— soil,  light,  moisture,  favorable  temperature,  air  (like  animals}.  Identification 
of  a  few  common  house  plants.  (From  Conference  Course.) 

A  series  of  talks  upon  the  general  subject  of  the  coming  of  spring  may  include 
the  following  topics: 

THE  SEASOX. — What  season  have  we  now?  What  things  tell  us  that  spring 
has  come?  (Teacher  write  points  on  board,  as-  given  by  class.)  What  games 
can  we  play  now  that  we  could  not  play  in  winter?  Why?  What  different  kinds 
of  work  can  be  done?  Why?  When  does  the  sun  rise  these  days?  When  does  it 
set?  How  was  it  at  Christmas  time?  Why  is  it  warmer  now?  What  difference 
is  there  in  our  clothing?  What  difference  in  keeping  the  house  warm?  (See 
Language  Course  for  appropriate  verses  if  desired.) 

CHAXGES  IX  WORK. — a.  What  kinds  of  work  are  fathers  making  ready 
to  do,  now  that  spring  has  come?  Have  the  various  kinds,  especially  those  relating 
to  planting,  described  briefly;  aim  to  make  the  children  interested  and  observant, 
and  to  organize  a  little  more  definitely  their  knowledge  of  man's  relation  to  nature 
about  him. 

b.  What   do  our  mothers   plan  to  have   done   as  soon  as   doors  and  windows 
may  be  left  open?     Why  do  we  wish  to  "clean  house?"     What  do  we  do?     (Clean 
carpets,  windows,  remove  storm  doors,  paint,  paper,  scrub,  wash,  air  bedding,  etc.) 
What  do  we  need  to  do  at  school?     Children  should  perform  some  of  the  simpler 
tasks  of  "house-cleaning"  at  school.     Desks  may  be  washed,  closets  put  in  order, 
proper   methods   of   dusting  practiced,   etc.     Further  work   may  be   done  with  the 
doll's  house.     If  none  is  at  hand,  make  one  by  setting  a  small  shoe  box  on  end 
and  putting  a  partition  midway  between  top  and  bottom,  cutting  in  some  windows. 
Some  of  the  pupils  may  add  a  roof.     It  can  be  painted,  papered,  furnished  with 
cardboard  furniture,  woven  rugs,  and  curtains.     Much  of  this  work  can  be  begun 
in  class  and  continued  as  seat  work. 

c.  Cleaning  the  yard.     What  can   we   do   to   make   our  schoolyard   ready  for 
the  spring?     Clear   away   dead   weeds  and   grass,  remove   papers   and   ashes.     Tell 


14 

what  is  done  at  home.  Plan  a  yard  for  doll's  house.  Measure  space,  cover  with 
oil  cloth  or  heavy  paper,  furnish  with  sod  and  some  twigs'  for  trees.  Lay  out 
flower  beds  and  vegetable  garden  to  prepare  for  the  real  garden  work  later. 

BIRDS. — The  bird-arrivals  should  be  noted,  now,  though  no  detailed  study  is 
begun.  Talks  should  center  about  such  points  as  are  suggested  here.  What  birds 
have  been  with  us  during  the  winter?  (Sparrow  and  bluejay,  at  least,  are  familiar.) 
How  do  they  live?  Why  do  we  like  them?  What  have  you  seen  them  do?  What 
other  birds  do  you  know7  about?  Where  have  they  been  all  winter?  Why?  Why 
do  they  return?  Which  ones  shall  we  look  for  first?  How  can  we  help  them?  Let 
us  keep  a  list  of  them  as  we  see  them.  How  can  we  tell  a  robin  from  any  other 
bird?  A  meadow  lark?  A  blackbird?  Draw  and  color  them.  Learn  poem.  Imitate 
songs  of  birds. 

TEEES. — Another  source  of  joy  in  the  springtime  is  a  closer  acquaintance  with 
the  trees.  Choose  a  tree  of  familiar  species,  near  school,  for  frequent  observation. 
Visit  it.  Note  its  size;  its  location,  if  in  any  way  significant.  Tell  how  it  differs 
in  appearance  from  what  it  was  last  summer.  Draw7  its  outline,  then  cut  out  from 
paper.  Watch  for  changes.  Carefully  gather  some  twigs  and  keep  in  water  to  let  the 
children  see  at  close  range  what  is  occurring  in  every  twig  of  the  tree.  No  detailed 
study  should  be  undertaken. 

OTHER  LIFE. — Watch  for  all  signs  of  reappearing  life.  Keep  a  list,  (grass, 
dandelions,  frogs,  toads,  pussy  willows,  etc.),  to  which  pupils  can  bring  additions 
each  day. 

EGGSHELL  GARDENS. — For  the  eggshell  gardens  suggested  for  this  month's 
work,  materials  are  easily  secured.  A  shallow  box,  partly  filled  with  sand,  is  an 
excellent  container  for  the  eggshells  which  each  pupil  brings  for  himself.  A  profit- 
able outdoor  period  may  be  spent  getting  the  right  kind  of  soil.  Each  shell  should 
have  a  hole  pricked  in  the  bottom,  and  should  be  filled  with  soil.  Two  or  three 
nasturtium  seeds  should  be  planted  in  each.  The  shells  should  then  be  labeled  by 
writing  name  of  child  and  the  date  upon  each,  and  all  arranged  neatly  in  the  tray 
of  sand  which  is  to  be  placed  in  the  window.  The  needs  of  the  l '  garden ' '  are  then 
discussed,  and  the  owners  charged  with  all  necessary  care. 

RADISHES. — A  larger  box  filled  with  earth  may  be  planted  with  radish  seeds. 
If  an  early  variety  is  selected  the  vegetables  may  reach  maturity  before  school 
closes,  a  particularly  desirable  point  in  work  with  small  children. 

WEATHER. — One  of  the  children's  pleasures  during  this  month  is  the  daily 
weather  observation  which  is  recorded  upon  the  blackboard  calendar.  The  state 
of  the  sky,  direction  of  wind,  and  rainfall,  if  any,  should  be  noted  each  day.  Count- 
ing the  number  of  clear,  cloudy,  and  rainy  days  at  the  close  of  the  month  is  a 
profitable  exercise  in  comparison  and  in  numbers. 

THOUGHT  AND  EXPRESSION.— In  all  this  work  good  thinking  and  clear, 
correct  expression  should  be  closely  linked  together.  Good  nature  study  work  will 
demand  good  expression  in  language  and  vice  versa. 

TWENTY-LESSON  PLAN. — The  following  outline  presents  twenty  lessons  for 
this  month.  The  order  must  be  decided  by  each  teacher,  to  suit  her  own  conditions. 
A  ten-minute  period  will  secure  many  good  results,  both  in  nature-study  and  in 
language.  Some  of  the  exercises  may  be  given  during  seatwork  periods,  if  the 
program  is  very  much  crowded,  thus  making  opportunity  for  other  work  by  means  of 
' '  alteration. ' ' 

1.  Talk.    Change  of  season. 

2.  Make  pinwheel. 

3.  Change  of  farm-work  because  of  seasons. 

4.  Change  of  home-work  because  of  seasons. 

5.  Change  of  school-work  because  of  seasons. 

6.  7,  8.    Make  doll's  house — Begin  to  furnish  it. 
9,  10,  11.    Plan  and  make  yard  for  doll's  house. 

12.  Bird-talk;  begin  calendar. 

13.  Poem. 

14.  Visit  tree;  note  signs  of  spring. 

15.  Talk  on  tree.    Draw.     Cut  out  drawing. 


15 

16,  17.    Plan  and  make  eggshell  gardens. 

18.  Plant  radishes  in  window  box. 

19.  Clean  yard  and  desks. 

MAY 

(Twenty  lessons  planned.) 

May,  1915. — Garden  studies  at  home,  and,  if  possible,  at  school.  Encourage 
flower  planting, — nasturtium,  four-o'clock,  balsam  ("lady  slipper");  gourds,  pop- 
corn. 

The  robin,  as  a  bird  about  the  home.  Its  food  habits,  nesting,  song,  destruc- 
tion of  injurious  insects.  Other  birds  which  are  abundant  and  easily  identified,  such 
as  flicker  and  meadow -lark. 

GAEDEX  WORK. — The  lessons  this  month  follow  closely  the  form  of  those 
preceding.  Most  children  are  interested  in  the  garden  making  at  home,  and  many 
participate  in  the  work.  These  follow  the  school  work  with  greatest  intelligence  and 
zest.  Reports  from  all  who  do  garden  work  at  home,  or  who  know  of  it  there, 
should  be  given  freely  in  class,  with  such  reasons  for  the  processes  as  children  can 
understand.  Next,  the  desirability  of  a  school  garden  may  be  discussed.  Usually 
the  activity  is  sufficient  motive,  and  ' l  taking  things  home ' '  a  sufficiently  desirable 
outcome,  to  enlist  hearty  co-operation.  Pupils  and  teachers  together  should  plan 
the  place  and  size  of  the  garden,  the  needful  work  in  preparation,  what,  how,  and 
when  to  plant,  care,  etc.  Some  of  the  work,  like  first  preparation  of  soil  can  best 
be  done  by  older  pupils.  Two  or  three  outdoor  lessons  may  suffice  if  the  teacher's 
time  is  limited,  and  for  part  of  the  work  an  older  pupil  may  serve  as  guide  with 
profit  to  all.  It  is  a  saving  of  time,  and  will  encourage  a  spirit  of  co-operation 
if  all  the  pupils  of  the  school  work  in  the  garden  at  the  same  time.  To  do  this 
it  is  necessary  that  the  work  of  each  group  should  be  so  carefully  planned  before- 
hand that  no  confusion  results.  If  the  school  is  large  it  may  be  separated  into  two 
groups  for  outdoor  work,  the  older  pupils  studying  while  the  younger  ones  work, 
and  the  younger  ones  having  an  extra  playtime  while  the  older  group  is  at  work. 

As  the  weather  grows  warmer  during  May  the  younger  pupils  may  frequently 
be  sent  out  upon  independent  excursions  for  brief  periods.  If  careful  limits  are 
set  for  them,  and  definite  problems  given,  it  is  rare  that  such  privileges  are  abused, 
and  usually  much  good  results. 

Preparatory  to  outdoor  work,  the  children  may  tell  of  the  home  garden,  where 
it  is,  how  the  soil  is  prepared,  what  is  planted,  which  seeds  first  whether  in  rows 
or  beds,  and  with  reasons  for  so  doing,  simply  given.  They  may  bring  seed  catalogs 
for  descriptions  of  products,  and  perhaps  the  seeds  for  the  tiny  school  garden  can 
be  spared  from  the  home  supply.  The  course  this  month  suggests  four-o 'clocks, 
balsams,  gourds,  and  popcorn  for  planting.  The  uses  and  beauty  of  these  plants 
should  be  talked  about  and  the  best  places  for  planting  decided  upon.  (Gourds  and 
nasturtiums  along  walls  or  fences,  corn  where  it  will  not  hide  smaller  plants.) 
Pictures  are  of  value  in  the  work  at  this  time.  Transplanting  the  nasturtiums  will 
recall  the  work  of  last  month,  and  the  advantages  of  indoor  planting  can  be  readily 
appreciated. 

WILD  FLOWERS. — The  first  spring  flowers  are  always  a  source  of  interest 
and  joy  to  the  children.  The  longer  school  sessions  may  be  broken  midway  for 
the  little  people  by  sending  them  out  to  see  what  wild  flowers  have  appeared. 
Bouquets  of  dandelions  or  violets  may  be  brought  in,  pupils  encouraged  to  note 
where  and  how  they  grow,  and  taught  to  avoid  the  wanton  and  purposeless  destruc- 
tion of  blossoms. 

RAIN. — One  or  more  lessons  upon  rain  may  be  given,  when  an  appropriate 
time  comes.  Why  do  we  need  rain?  (Soft  water  for  washing,  cleans  and  cools  air, 
makes  gardens  grow,  fills  creeks  and  ponds,  gives  water  to  drink.)  How  does  the 
rain  give  us  fun?  (''Rivers"  to  sail  boats,  mud  pies.)  Why  do  we  sometimes 
not  like  rain?  (Bad  roads,  muddy  shoes,  spoils  gardens,  clouds  hide  sun.)  Where 
does  the  rain  go?  (Soaks  into  ground,  runs  to  creek,  "  dries  up. ?>)  Learn  poem, 
fold  umbrella. 


16 

BIEDS. — Several  lessons  need  to  be  given  to  continue  the  interest  in  bird  life. 
The  robin  is  perhaps  most  familiar,  but  the  meadow  lark  and  the  flicker  are  very 
common,  easy  to  approach,  and  are  so  definitely  marked  as  to  be  easily  recognized 
both  by  color  and  song.  The  children  may  go  out  and  observe  these  for  themselves, 
if  carefully  directed  by  the  teacher,  and  give  their  reports  in  class-time.  Colored 
pictures  are  useful  in  helping  to  remember.  One  child  may  hold  a  picture  of  a  bird 
and  describe  it,  while  others  guess  what  it  is.  For  description  of  common  birds  see 
"Bird  Descriptions"  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  year  lessons  in  this  num- 
ber. For  the  flicker  and  other  woodpeckers  see  also  pages  7  and  8  of  leaflet  Number 
Two. 

EOBIN. — In  studying  the  robin  only  such  facts  need  be  talked  about  as  can 
be  observed,  but  these  are  many.  How  can  we  tell  if  a  bird  we  see  is  a  robin? 
What  have  you  seen  a  robin  do?  How  long  have  they  been  here?  Why  did  they 
come  back  to  us?  What  do  they  eat?  How  many  songs,  or  calls,  has  the  robin? 
Facts  regarding  food,  songs,  nests,  bathing,  etc.,  can  easily  be  learned  by  direct 
observation,  and  should  not  be  told  by  the  teacher.  Pictures  of  the  robin  may  be 
drawn  and  colored.  Poems  and  songs  may  be  learned. 

TWENTY-LESSON  PLAN.— The  following  outline  gives  twenty  lessons  for 
this  month.  The  order  must  be  decided  by  each  teacher  to  suit  her  own  conditions. 
A.  ten-minute  period  will  secure  many  good  results.  Some  of  these  lessons  may  be 
given  during  seatwork  periods,  if  the  program  is  much  crowded. 

1.  Eeports  of  home  gardens. 

2,  3,  4,  5.     Plan  and  make  school  garden. 

6,  7.    Early  wild  flowers.     Discussions.     Gather.     Draw  and  color. 

8.  Transplanting  nasturtiums. 

9.  Eain. 

10.  Fold  umbrella. 

11.  Birds.     General  talk. 

12.  Meadow  lark. 

13.  Flicker. 

14.  15,  16.    Bobin.    Introductory  talk.    Visit,    Beport. 

17.  Picture  lesson.    Cut  and  color. 

18.  Poem. 

19.  Tree.    Visit. 

20.  Story. 


17 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  SECOND  YEAR 

SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  SEPTEMBER. — Discussion  of  summer  experiences  and  activ- 
ities. Conditions  of  gardens  started  in  the  spring.  Special  study  of  radish-root, 
stem-s,  flowers,  seeck-pods,  seeds.  Compare  with  radish  used  for  food  in-  the  spring. 
Save  seeds.  Study  of  pumpkin  or  squash  plant — habit  of  growth,  leaves,  flower, 
fruit.  Gather  seeds  of  other  garden  plants  and  preserve  for  spring  planting.  Gather 
popcorn  and  store. 

Notice  any  insects  that  are  seen  in  connection  with  garden  or  wild  flower  study. 
What  are  they  doing? 

Devote  the  month  chiefly  to  informal  studies  based  on  out-door  observation. 
Common  autumn  wild  flowers;  gather  and  arrange  in  bouquets;  note  windblown  seeds 
of  goldenrod,  aster,  thistle,  dandelion,  etc.;  make  collection  and  chart  of  these 
"fivers;  "  note  how  far  the  seeds  travel  in  the  wind;  where  they  alight. 

A  few  most  common  birds;  what  they  are  doing;  the  places  they  prefer;  their 
habits ;  where  they  spend  the  night. 

VACATION. — Discuss  informally  the  experiences  of  the  summer.  Where  was 
the  vacation  spent?  Who  went  to  picnics,  who  did  some  work  about  the  home? 
Who  had  a  garden?  Etc. 

AUTUMN  FLOWERS. — Find  the  various  wild  flowers  growing  along  road 
sides  and  in  the  fields.  Gather  a  few  for  bouquets.  Study  in  a  simple  way  some- 
thing of  the  habits.  Where  these  plants  grow?  How  tall  they  are?  Make  a  col- 
lection of  the  wind-blown  seeds  as  suggested  in  the  outline. 

GARDEN. — Discuss  the  garden  as  suggested  under  lesson  plans  in  September 
of  first  year.  Make  a  detailed  study  of  a  radish  plant  that  has  gone  to  seed.  Com- 
pare the  root  with  the  radish  root  that  we  eat  in  the  spring.  What  do  you  think 
has  become  of  the  soft,  tender  portion?  Notice  the  color  and  beauty  of  the  flowers. 
Where  are  the  pods?  Open  the  pods  to  find  the  seeds.  Put  some  of  the  seeds 
in  envelopes  to  save  for  spring  planting.  Make  a  special  study  of  a  popcorn  plant. 
Where  the  ears  are  borne.  Gather  and  store  some  of  the  ears. 

BIRDS. — Study  birds  as  suggested  in  first  year 's  work. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  OCTOBER. — TREES. — Eeview  trees  studied  in  -first  year.  Add 
two  or  three  others.  Which  makes  the  best  shade?  Why?  Collect  autumn  leaves, 
press  and  make  chart  or  border  for  room. 

FEVIT  TREES. — Name  those  found  in  the  neighborhood.  Study,  peach,  pear, 
cherry,  and  apple  tree.  How  can  you  tell  the  trees  apart  when  there  is  no  fruit  on 
them?  Bring  in  twigs  and  leaves  of  different  kinds.  WJiat  shrubs  bear  fruit  for 
us?  Gooseberry,  raspberry,  blackberry,  currant.  Identify  these. 

ANIMALS  THAT  WOEK  FOE  US.— What  each  one  does.  Food  of  animals. 
Find  different  kinds  of  grasses,  clovers,  grains.  Make  collection  of  these  and  pre- 
serve to  put  in  barn  later  in  the  year.  Where  are  the  different  kinds  of  food  stored? 
Who  feeds  the  animals?  Birds  a-s  suggested  for  first  year. 

TREES. — Follow  the  outline  suggested  in  the  first  year  for  the  study  of  trees. 
Note  the  different  colors  of  the  autumn  leaves.  Does  each  kind  of  tree  have  a  special 
color  ?  Which  ones  are  the  brightest  ?  Have  the  children  collect  some  of  the  prettiest 
leaves,  press  them  and  make  a  chart  by  pasting  them  upon  cardboard.  A  rery 
pretty  border  for  the  room  may  be  made  from  these  leaves. 

Fruit  Trees. — Discuss  informally  what  trees  bear  fruit  that  we  use  for  food. 
Let  each  child  tell  what  trees  are  found  at  his  home.  Which  trees  have  fruit  on 
them  now?  Which  ones  ripen  their  fruit  in  the  summer?  Make  a  detailed  study 
of  a  peach  similar  to  the  apple  study  suggested  in  November  of  the  second  year. 

Bring  twigs  of  various  kinds  of  fruit  trees  into  the  school  room.     Note  the 


18 

differences  in  the  shape  and  color  of  leaves,  and  the  color  of  the  bark.     Make  a 
similar  study  of  the  shrubs  that  bear  fruit  for  us. 

ANIMALS. — Ask  the  children  to  name  all  the  animals  that  work  for  us  or  help 
us  in  any  way.  How  does  each  help  us?  What  do  these  animals  eat?  Who  has  ever 
helped  to  feed  the  horses,  or  pigs  or  cows?  Make  a  brief  study  of  the  different 
kinds  of  food  eaten  by  these  animals.  Make  several  collections  of  different  kinds 
of  grasses  from  the  pastures  and  meadows.  Tie  these  up  into  very  small  bundles 
and  lay  aside  to  use  in  the  barn  which  is  to  be  constructed  in  the  winter  months. 

In  a  similar  manner  study  and  collect  the  grains  eaten  by  animals.  Make  small 
boxes  out  of  paper  and  store  small  samples  of  each  kind. 

NOVEMBER 

OUTUNE  FOE  NOVEMBER. — The  apple,  in  connection  with  Thanksgiving. 
Identify  a  few  striking  varieties,  as  russet,  snow,  greening,  Jonathan;  qualities  of 
each.  Which  keep  best  over  winter?  Significance  of  skin,  core,  pulp,  seed.  How  did 
the  apple  "start"  on  the  tree?  Problem  to  be  solved  next  spring.  Save  seeds;  label 
kinds.  How  do  "worms"  get  into  apples?  Decay;  infection  by  contact.  Storage. 
Methods  of  preparing  for  eating.  Make  Thanksgiving  pie.  Dried  apples. 

Special  study  of  the  horse;  uses,  disposition,  habits,  fitness  for  service  to  man, 
care.  Kinds  of  horses  (including  ponies')  on  basis  of  use,  as  carriage  horses,  riding, 
draft,  racing  horses. 

(Eighteen  lessons  planned.  Some  possible  combinations  with  language  and 
physiology  are  suggested.) 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE. — The  weather,  and  out-of-door  conditions,  three 
lessons.  The  apple,  five  lessons.  The  horse,  four  lessons.  Poems  and  stories,  three 
lessons.  Health  talks,  three  lessons.  This  schedule  should  be  varied  to  suit  the  needs 
and  conditions  of  each  particular  school. 

THE  APPLE. — Give  a  list  of  fruits  which  are  gathered  in  the  fall.  Which  of 
these  can  be  kept  fresh  for  the  longest  time?  How  many  kinds  of  apples  do  you 
know?  Bring  as  many  kinds  to  school  as  you  can.  (Several  kinds  may  easily  be 
identified.)  We  can  tell  the  russet  by  its  tough,  brownish  green  skin;  the  snow 
apple  by  its  pinkish-red  color,  with  a  light  green  spot,  and  by  its  juicy,  white  pulp. 
The  greening  has  a  green  skin;  it  is  used  often  for  cooking.  The  Jonathan  has  a 
deep,  rich  red  color.  Ask  at  home  which  kinds  are  being  saved  for  winter  use.  Why  ? 
Which  kinds  taste  best  now? 

Which  part  of  the  apple  do  we  like  best?  What  other  parts  are  important? 
Why?  Cut  an  apple  across,  to  see  seed  arrangement.  How  are  the  seeds  protected? 
Why?  Save  some  seeds.  Make  an  envelope  in  which  to  keep  them. 

What  made  the  trees  look  pretty  last  spring?  What  becomes  of  the  blossoms? 
When  can  we  watch  to  find  out?  Why  do  we  not  eat  the  apples  when  they  are 
small?  What  ripens  the  apples? 

How  can  you  distinguish  an  apple  tree  at  this  time  of  the  year?  Examine  one 
at  home,  carefully;  tell  us  how  it  looks,  and  draw  its  picture. 

What  unpleasant  things  may  happen  to  apples,  while  they  are  growing?  How 
do  worms  get  into  apples?  (The  moth  lays  the  eggs  on  the  outside.  A  worm 
hatches,  and  eats  his  way  into  the  apple.)  What  harm  does  he  do? 

How  are  apples  kept  for  winter  use?  (Cool,  dry  place,  no  freezing.  Experi- 
ment, to  learn  effects  of  freezing,  bruising,  of  keeping  in  the  warm  schoolroom.) 

In  what  different  forms  do  we  eat  apples?  Eaw,  baked,  sauce,  jelly,  apple  butter, 
dried.  Let  pupils  string  and  dry  some. 

The  juice  of  apples  is  useful,  when  pressed  out.  When  fresh,  it  is  often  used 
to  drink.  When  not  fresh  it  is  harmful.  It  is  used  in  making  vinegar. 

THE  WEATHER. — This  topic  should  be  a  part  of  each  month's  work.  So, 
also,  should  te  the  common  out-of-door  changes  in  nature,  which  are  within  the 
children's  comprehension;  e.  g.,  birds,  trees,  etc. 

What  month  is  this?  What  holiday  occurs?  How  many  days  in  November? 
Let  us  count  the  sunny  days.  How  are  November  days  different  from  those  of  last 
summer?  What  things  out-of-doors  are  different?  Tell  how.  What  birds  do  we 
see  now?  How  do  they  take  care  of  themselves?  How  may  we  help?  (Scatter 


19 

crumbs,  or  seeds,  place  food  in  trees,  etc.)  What  changes  have  come  to  the  trees? 
Draw  pictures  of  trees  in  summer,  and  in  winter.  What  is  beautiful  about  them, 
at  each  season  ? 

THE  HOESE. — Name  the  barnyard  animals.  In  how  many  ways  is  the  horse 
useful  to  us  ?  Why  can  they  do  the  work  we  give  them  to  do  better  than  other 
animals  could?  They  are  strong,  gentle,  agile,  swift,  willing.  How  are  they  taughr 
to  work  for  us?  Discuss  harnessing  and  breaking,  the  intelligence,  docility,  friend- 
liness of  the  horse. 

What  daily  care  do  horses  need?  (Water  and  food,  regularly,  bedding,  brush- 
ing.) What  special  care  is  needed  at  times?  (Blanketing  in  cold  weather,  "rub- 
bing down,"  shoeing,  etc.)  Try  to  watch  a  horse  asleep.  How  does  a  horse  get 
up?  Find  out  how  much  grain  and  hay  different  horses  eat  in  a  day.  Does  a  horse 
earn  his  food,  and  good  care? 

Watch  horses  that  pass  by,  and  those  at  home.  What  kinds  of  horses  can  best 
haul  heavy  loads?  What  kind  are  best  for  running?  For  our  carriages?  Tell  the 
children,  or  let  them  tell,  if  they  can,  of  the  sturdy  little  Shetland  ponies,  the  tough 
pony  of  the  Indians,  the  beautiful  horses  of  the  Arabs.  Show  pictures.  Notice  how 
horses  carry  their  heads. 

HEALTH  LESSOXS. — Questions  and  suggestions  as  to  good  things  for  chil- 
dren 's  breakfast  in  winter.  Eggs,  milk,  fruit,  cooked  breakfast  foods  with  cream  and 
sugar. 

Eating  often  between  meals  is  harmful  because  it  does  not  allow  the  stomach 
to  rest.  If  one 's  breakfast  is  very  early,  he  may  have  a  lunch  before  the  noon  meal. 
Eating  slowly  is  more  healthful  and  better  manners. 

Using  a  toothbrush  keeps  the  teeth  clean,  helps  prevent  decay,  makes  a  child 
look  much  more  attractive.  How  can  a  small  child  earn  money  for  a  toothbrush? 

POEMS  AXD  STOE  IE  S.— Talking  in  Their  Sleep,  Over  the  Elver  and  Through 
the  Wood,  The  Pumpkin,  The  Lark  and  Her  Young  are  suggested  as  fitting  in  well 
with  this  work.  A  Thanksgiving  story  should  not  be  omitted. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER. — Weather  chart  for  December  (see  directions  for 
October,  first  year).  The  snowfall;  forms  of  flakes;  the  story  of  tfa  raindrop; 
observation  of  clouds;  snow  as  a  covering  for  plants  in  winter  and  source  of  mois- 
ture in  spring. 

Sky  studies. — Apparent  path  of  sun  and  moon;  changing  length  of  day;  moon's 
changes;  milky  icay  ;  dipper;  north  star;  Orion.  Children  report  observations  made 
at  home  under  guidance  of  parents. 

Popping  corn;  why  it  pops. 

(Eighteen  lessons  planned.  The  number  of  lessons  to  be  devoted  to  each  topic 
is  difficult  to  determine  in  advance.  The  teacher  must  make  individual  plans  accord- 
ing to  particular  conditions.  The  month's  work  is  rich  in  material,  and  opportun- 
ities for  combinations  with  language  and  handwork  are  many.  Time  may  thus  be 
planned  to  better  advantage  in  all  subjects.) 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE. — Sky  studies,  seven  lessons.  Weather,  calendar,  and 
snow,  four  or  five  lessons.  Health  lessons,  two.  Christmas  stories,  poems,  handwork, 
and  decorations,  five  or  six  lessons. 

SKY  STUDIES. — From  observation.  Describe  the  direction  from  us  of  the  sun, 
at  its  rising,  at  noon,  at  sunset.  Go  out  of  doors  and  trace  its  path  by  pointing, 
and  by  accurate  statements.  What  kind  of  days,  as  to  length,  have  we  now?  That 
is  because  the  sun  is  with  us  so  short  a  time  and  because  it  seems  to  travel  in  such 
a  low  path  through  the  sky.  We  must  watch  to  see  how  long  this  will  be  true. 

Beginning  when  the  moon  is  new,  give  directions  for  watching  it,  then  have 
reports.  Where,  in  the  sky,  did  you  see  it?  At  what  time?  What  was  its  shape? 
Which  way  did  the  /'horns"  point?  Where  was  the  sun — on  which  side  of  the 
moon?  Why  do  you  think  it  is  called  a  "new"  moon?  Watch  each  evening,  at 
about  the  same  time.  Make  a  picture  of  the  moon  each  time.  See  if  it  is  in  the 
same  place  each  evening.  The  moon  shines  because  the  sun  throws  light  upon  it. 


20 

Does  that  seem  strange?  Try  to  think,  or  ask  some  one  where  the  sun  is  when  you 
are  looking  at  the  moon. 

When  you  are  watching  the  moon  look  for  a  path  of  light  across  the  sky.  Ask 
some  one  its  name,  when  you  have  found  it.  Try  to  remember  its  direction,  and  tell 
us  next  day.  Notice  if  all  the  stars  in  this  ' '  Milky  Way ' '  are  alike. 

Look  tonight  for  bright  stars.  People  long  ago  gave  names  to  certain  groups 
of  stars.  Try  to  find  the  Dipper  without  any  help.  Be  ready  to  make  a  drawing 
of  it  tomorrow,  using  the  right  number  of  stars.  See  if  you  can  tell  why  it  is  also 
called  Great  Bear.  (The  handle  of  the  Dipper  is  the  tail  of  the  Bear.)  Ask  some- 
one to  help  you  find  the  North  Star,  after  you  have  learned  the  Dipper.  This  star 
is  an  important  one  to  remember. 

One  of  the  brightest  groups  of  stars  in  our  sky  is  toward  the  south,  in  winter, 
and  is  called  Orion.  There  is  a  bright  star  above,  another  below,  and  three  across, 
midway  between.  Orion  was  a  great  hunter,  and  the  middle  stars  are  his  belt. 
Get  some  older  person  to  help  find  him. 

Interest  will  be  added  to  this  work,  and  more  definite  results  secured,  if  some 
written  reports  can  be  made.  After  the  oral  lesson,  pupils  may  copy  sentences  like 
the  following,  leaving  blanks  to  be  filled  at  home. 

1.  The  sun  set  last  night  at o  'clock. 

2.  The  moon  was of  me  at o'clock. 

3.  The  moon  looked  like  this 

4.  I  counted stars  in  the  Dipper. 

5.  The  North  star  was of  me. 

6.  The  direction  of  the  Milky  Way  is  from to 

7.  I  saw stars  in  Orion's  belt. 

These  papers  may  be  used  some  day  for  a  reading  lesson. 

THE  WEATHEE,  SNOW. — Note  out-of-door  conditions  as  usual.  When  the 
first  snow  falls,  take  a  little  time  to  watch  it  coming  down.  How  does  the  sky 
look?  Where  does  snow  come  from?  Tell  class  the  story  of  a  raindrop — drawing 
upon  their  knowledge  and  experience  whenever  possible.  Catch  some  flakes  upon 
a  dark  cloth.  Notice  their  shapes.  How  many  points  has  each  "star?"  Count 
many,  to  see  if  any  differ  in  number.  See  if  all  are  the  same  shape. 

To  cut  a  six-pointed  star:  Take  a  six-inch  square  of  paper.  Fold  the  back  edge 
to  the  front  edge.  Mark  the  center  of  the  folded  edge.  Fold  the  back  right  corner 
of  the  paper  toward  the  left  and  downward  past  the  middle;  fold  the  back  left 
corner  to  the  right  and  downward,  covering  the  preceding  fold  exactly,  thus  making 
three  equal  angles  at  the  center  point  in  the  first  folded  edge.  Crease.  Fold  the 
resulting  figure  double  by  bringing  the  slanting  edges  together.  Crease. 

Next,  hold  the  figure  with  the  point  toward  you,  the  open  edge  at  the  right. 
Place  scissors  on  this  open  edge,  one  inch  (or  less)  from  the  point,  and  make  a 
very  slanting  cut  back  to  the  straight  edge  at  the  left.  Cut  this  resulting  slant 
edge  into  any  fancy  pattern.  Unfold. 

The  teacher  must  work  with  class  in  making  this. 

What  fun  can  we  have  with  snow?  Make  cardboard  sled.  Can  you  make  a 
real  one,  at  home?  Of  what  other  use  is  snow?  (Makes  roads  smooth  for  sleigh- 
ing, covers  plants,  furnishes  moisture  for  soil.) 

See  if  you  find  any  tracks  in  the  snow.     Can  you  tell  what  animals  made  them? 

What  makes  snowdrifts?  Where  do  we  find  them?  Watch  snow  on  the  trees. 
Which  hold  most  snow?  Which  are  sometimes  harmed  by  it? 

HEALTH  TALKS. — Most  children  need  frequent  suggestions  and  help  in  cor- 
rect behavior  while  eating.  The  teacher  can  add  materially  to  the  comfort  and 
happiness  of  the  luncheon  hour,  by  tactfully  and  sympathetically  gaining  the  co- 
operation of  the  pupils  in  making  of  it  a  pleasant  social  time,  in  which  self-control 
and  courteous  consideration  go  hand  in  hand  with  hygienic  practice.  This  is  also  a 
good  season  in  which  to  learn  that  excessive  use  of  candy  is  unhealthful,  and  that 
the  best  time  to  eat  candy  is  after  one's  meal.  Much  of  this  work  can  best 
be  accomplished  during  the  noon-time,  when  luncheons  are  eaten.  Some  may  be 
done  in  more  formal  lessons. 

THE  CHEISTMAS  SEASON. — Poems  and  stories  which  may  have  a  particular 
appropriateness  this  month  are : 

While  Shepherds  Watched  Their  Flocks  by  Night. 


21 

The  Sun 's  Travels,  or  Winter  Time. — Stevenson. 

Christmas  Story  of  the  Wise  Men. 

Some  popcorn  brought  to  school  for  study  makes  a  good  lesson.  It  may  be 
popped  and  strung  and  used  as  Christmas  decoration.  Snowflake  stars,  cut  and 
colored,  may  be  used  likewise. 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  JAXUARY. — Shelter  for  farm  animals;  barns,  sheds,  poultry 
house,  etc.  Natural  covering  of  the  different  animals.  How  wild  animals  spend  the 
winter;  hibernation.  Construct  barn,  poultry  house,  etc.,  and  barnyard,  a$  in  case 
of  doll  house  in  first  year,  and  stock  with  foods  collected  in  October.  Make  toy 
animals  of  clay,  or  paper. 

Our  hands  and  arms.  What  they  help  us  to  do.  Main  parts  of  these  members. 
Care  of  hands,  naite,  skin.  The  feet  and  legs.  How  they  are  useful.  Main  parts. 
Care.  How  to  be  strong. 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE. — Shelter  and  construction,  six  or  seven  lessons.  The 
weather  and  out-door  life,  five  lessons.  Health  talks,  five  lessons. 

SHELTER. — What  are  the  ways  in  which  we  protect  ourselves  from  cold? 
What  other  beings  about  us  need  shelter?  Which  of  these  animals  do  we  provide 
for.  How  are  horses  and  cattle  sheltered  from  cold  and  storm?  Tell  how  barns 
are  built,  and  arranged  for  horses  and  cattle.  Tell  about  the  mangers,  floors,  stalls, 
etc.  Why  is  a  barn  warm?  How  does  fresh  air  enter?  How  may  bad  air  escape? 

What  part  of  the  time  do  horses  and  cattle  spend  indoors?  How  are  they 
protected  when  out-of-doors  on  bad  days?  On  which  side  of  a  straw  stack  do  they 
like  to  stand?  Why  do  they  need  protection  more  than  bears  do? 

Tell  how  a  hen-house  differs  from  a  barn.  Why?  Describe  the  perches,  nests, 
feeding-places.  Discuss  similarly  the  care  of  sheep  and  hogs,  if  time  permits. 

For  what  are  the  farm  buildings  used  besides  sheltering  the  animals?  (The 
animals  are  fed  there.  Food  is  stored  in  them.)  Why?  (Comfort  and  safety. 
Prevents  waste.)  Xame  the  kinds  of  food,  manner  of  storing  and  of  feeding  to 
the  various  animals. 

CONSTRUCT IOX. — Any  number  of  farm  yard  buildings  may  be  made  out  of 
small  wooden  or  paste-board  boxes,  used  as  described  in  September,  First  year,  for 
the  doll  house.  Pasteboard  boxes  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  are  perhaps  better 
for  a  first  attempt,  as  they  are  more  easily  handled.  Partitions  may  be  fastened 
in  with  glue  or  with  paper-fasteners,  as  the  class  arrange  and  plan  for  them.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  storing  hay,  fodder  and  grain,  and  bits  of  each  kind  of 
food  should  be  put  in  proper  places.  The  various  animals  may  be  cut  from  heavy 
paper,  or  better  made  from  clay.  Toy  animals  brought  from  home  add  even  more 
interest.  The  tools  and  implements  needed  about  a  barn  may  be  similarly  provided. 
A  yard  may  be  added,  as  to  the  doll 's  house,  if  desired. 

How  are  the  barnyard  animals  given  water  in  winter?  Let  different  pupils 
describe  in  detail.  Add  a  toy  windmill  to  the  farm  yard  equipment. 

Still  further  care  is  necessary — the  animals'  shelter  must  be  kept  clean.  How 
is  this  done  ?  How  does  it  benefit  them.  How  does  it  benefit  us  ? 

OUTDOOR  LIFE.— How  do  the  wild  animals  that  you  know  about  spend  the 
winter?  Make  a  list  of  birds  and  other  animals  that  you  see.  What  is  their 
food  ?  How  do  the  rabbits,  squirrels,  mice,  etc.,  live  and  keep  warm  ? 

What  has  become  of  the  frogs,  toads  and  snakes?  They  are  down  in  moist 
earth  away  from  frost,  taking  a  long  sleep,  until  spring  comes.  We  call  this 
hibernating.  Watch  for  the  time  when  they  come  out.  Why  should  they  hibernate, 
when  rabbits  and  squirrels  do  not?  (Think  what  their  food  is.) 

THE  WEATHER.— Keep  daily  calendar  on  blackboard.  How  many  sunny 
days?  How  many  days  can  you  skate?  Go  sleighing?  Play  snowball?  What  sports 
are  best  for  this  month  ?  Make  pictures  to  show. 

Watch  the  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset  each  day  for  a  week.  Keep  the  record 
until  next  month,  or  longer. 

HEALTH  LESSOXS.— Make  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  work  you  can  do.  How 
do  your  hands  help?  How  do  you  use  them  at  play?  What  can  we  do,  because 


22 

we  have  hands,  that  the  animals  cannot  do?  Try  to  feel  how  many  bones  in  the 
arm.  How  do  they  make  it  useful?  Find  the  joints.  Tell  their  use.  Find  the 
joints  in  your  hands.  What  if  there  were  none?  Try  some  day  to  see  if  you  can 
count  them. 

Feel  the  muscles  of  your  arms.  Why  do  you  wish  them  to  be  strong?  Good 
food,  fresh  air,  plenty  of  exercise  at  play,  and  helping  at  home  make  them  strong. 

Why  do  our  hands  need  special  care?  Washing  them  clean,  and  drying  them 
thoroughly  prevents  them  from  becoming  chapped  and  sore. 

Think  how  useful  one's  finger  nails  are.  They  should  be  trimmed  with  scissors 
or  file,  never  torn  or  bitten.  Biting  them  makes  them  very  ugly,  and  one's  fingers 
are  not  so  skillful.  Diseases  may  be  easily  spread  by  the  dust  that  crowds  under 
the  finger  nails.  They  should  be  cleaned  carefully  and  often. 

Think  of  the  many  ways  in  which  the  muscles  and  bones  of  the  legs  and  feet 
serve  us.  If  we  wish  the  feet  to  do  their  work  well,  and  without  pain,  we  must 
wear  comfortable  shoes  that  have  the  shape  of  the  foot.  The  feet  need  to  be  bathed 
very  often,  because  we  walk  in  dusty  or  wet  places,  and  because  our  thick  shoes  do 
not  allow  the  perspiration  to  escape. 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  FEBRUARY. — Weather  chart  for  the  month.  Learn  cardinal 
points.  Special  attention  to  direction  of  wind. 

The  dog ;  habits,  care,  uses,  kinds,  wild  relatives. 

Use  and  care  of  eyes  and  ears.    The  voice.    The  sense  of  touch. 

SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE. — The  wind  and  the  weather,  five  or  six  lessons. 
Health  lessons,  five  or  six.  The  dog,  five  or  six  lessons. 

THE  WIND  AND  THE  WEATHER.— Go  out  of  doors  on  a  bright  day,  at 
noon.  Notice  your  shadow.  It  falls  to  the  north.  What  direction  is  back  of  you? 
At  your  right?  At  your  left?  The  sun  helps  us  to  remember  two  of  these  directions; 
what  are  they?  Name  familiar  places  north,  south,  east,  and  west  of  your  home; 
of  school.  Pupils  should  give  these  in  full  statements,  and  point  as  they  tell.  They 
may  also  supply  omissions  in  sentences  like  the  following,  then  read  them  to  the 
class. 

My  home  is of  our  school. 

is  east  of  my  home. 

If  these  four  directions  are  very  familiar,  teach  the  semi-cardinal  points. 

Apply  this  knowledge  to  observation  of  the  wind.  Let  each  pupil  keep  a  cal- 
endar of  his  own  this  month,  and  record  the  direction  of  the  wind  each  day  by 
using  the  appropriate  word  or  abbreviations.  Note  also  if  the  day  is  cold,  cool,  or 
warm.  At  the  close  of  the  month,  note  carefully  the  wind-direction  on  cold  days, 
warm  days,  etc. 

Keep  also  a  record  of  the  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset  for  a  week.  Compare 
with  last  month's  record.  Save  both  for  use  later.  How  can  you  tell  by  your 
work  if  the  daylight  time  is  longer  ?  (Supper  before  dark,  more  play-time  before 
dark,  etc.) 

HEALTH  TALKS. — The  Eye.  What  are  some  things  our  eyes  help  us  to  do? 
Try  to  do  some  easy  thing  when  they  are  closed?  (Blindfold  a  child;  others  put 
objects  in  his  hand  for  him  to  recognize.)  What  helps  you  when  you  do  not  see? 
Can  ears  and  hands  take  the  place  of  eyes?  How,  then,  should  we  treat  our  eyes? 
(Keep  them  clean;  read  with  light  falling  on  book,  and  shaded  from  eyes,  book 
at  proper  distance  from  the  eye ;  do  not  read  in  fading  light ;  do  not  gaze  directly 
at  the  sun,  even  for  fun;  do  not  rub  the  eyes.  If  eyes  are  not  strong,  consult  a 
physician. ) 

The  Ear. — What  parts  of  the  ear  can  we  see?  The  outer  ear  helps  to  catch 
sounds  and  send  them  into  the  opening  in  the  side  of  the  head.  How  should  we 
care  for  this  outer  part?  (Keep  it  clean;  never  put  anything  into  it,  for  any 
reason;  never  strike  a  person  upon  the  ear;  do  not  make  sudden  loud  noises  close 
to  the  ear.) 

Inside  the  ear  are  wonderful  tiny  bones  and  tubes  which  help  carry  the  sound 
to  the  brain.  Striking  the  ear  may  harm  these,  so  that  a  person  cannot  hear  well. 


23 

See  how  far  you  can  hear  a  watch  tick,  or  a  pin  drop.  If  one  cannot  hear  well, 
it  is  much  harder  to  learn. 

The  Vowe. — Think  how  useful  it  is  every  day.  In  what  ways  do  we  use  it? 
Which  of  these  are  pleasant  to  hear?.  What  kind  of  tones  do  we  use  on  the  play- 
ground? What  kind  give  most  pleasure  at  home  or  at  school? 

THE  DOG. — Who  has  a  dog  at  home?  Why  do  you  keep  him?  Tell  all  the 
different  things  your  dogs  do  that  are  useful,  or  that  give  pleasure.  How  can  one 
teach  a  dog  to  go  after  the  cattle,  or  to  carry  a  package,  or  to  perform  a  trick? 

How  do  dogs  show  that  they  are  our  friends?  How  do  dogs  defend  themselves? 
What  should  we  do  if  a  dog  seems  cross?  How  can  a  dog  show  how  he  feels? 
(Bark,  growl,  whine,  leap  up,  wag  his  tail,  etc.)  Each  tell  a  story  to  show  a  dog's 
faithfulness,  friendliness,  or  intelligence. 

What  care  should  we  give  to  a  dog?  Clean  place  to  sleep,  coarse  food,  bones 
to  gnaw,  water.  When  do  dogs  sleep?  Why  do  they  like  to  go  into  water? 

Watch  your  dog  when  he  eats.  What  can  you  learn  about  his  teeth?  How  does 
he  drink?  Can  you  tell  a  dog's  track?  How? 

What  kinds  of  dogs  do  you  know  about?  Which  are  big  and  strong?  Small, 
playful?  Friendly?  Cross?  Which  can  run  swiftly: 

Teacher  may  tell  stories  of  the  Eskimo  dogs,  the  St.  Bernards,  or  others.  It 
will  be  of  interest  to  make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  dogs. 

Story  of  The  Dog  and  His  Shadow,  of  Old  Dog  Tray,  or  of  the  Dog  of  Flanders, 
will  be  appreciated  by  the  class  in  this  connection. 

What  wild  animal  is  like  the  dog?     How  are  wolves  like  dogs?    How  different? 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOR  MARCH. — Discuss  various  changes  in  weather,  in  plants,  and 
in  animals  that  indicate  the  approach  of  spring.  Follow  spring  changes  in  soft 
maple,  willow,  or  other  trees.  Place  twigs  in  water,  and  watch  development  of  flower 
and  teaf  buds. 

Special  study  of  a  rainstorm.  How  rain  comes  down,  what  it  does  when  it  falls, 
uses  of  rainwater.  Simple  story  of  a  raindrop. 

Continue  observations  of  birds.  Watch  for  the  first  robin,  bluebird,  blackbird, 
and  others. 

Plant  seeds  of  nasturtium,  pan-sy,  four -o'clock,  radish,  lettuce,  and  pumpkin  in 
window  boxes.  Pupils  watch  their  growth  and  learn  to  care  for  them. 

SUGGESTED     SCHEDULE. — The  season,     three     lessons.     Rainstorm,     three 

lessons.     Birds,  three   or  four  lessons.  Trees,  three   or  four  lessons.     Garden,  five 

lessons.  Each  of  these  time-allotments  may  be  extended  by  outdoor  trips,  written 
work,  poems  and  stories. 

THE  SEASOX. — What  things  that  grow  out  of  doors  show  that  spring  is 
coming?  See  how  many  signs  of  spring  you  can  find.  Do  the  barnyard  animals 
act  as  if  they  know  spring  is  near?  How  do  they  show  it? 

Xame  the  months  that  we  have  called  winter.  What  month  is  this?  To  what 
season  does  it  belong?  In  what  ways  can  we  tell  that  spring  is  beginning?  (Longer 
days,  warmer  weather,  tiny  bits  of  green  in  places,  buds  swelling,  birds  coming, 
many  changes  in  outdoor  work,  muddy  roads,  frost  leaving  earth,  etc.) 

Xote  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset  on  various  days  in  the  month.  Children  may 
ask  older  members  of  the  family  to  help.  Compare  each  of  these  with  the  others 
and  with  the  records  of  last  month.  Let  pupils  tell  the  results  of  the  lengthening 
days  which  they  see. 

Tell  in  a  story,  all  the  things  which  March  brings  us. 

The  lessons  on  this  topic  will  be  of  greater  value  if  not  given  consecutively. 

A  RAIXSTORM.— Watch  how  the  rain  comes  down.  Think  of  all  the  places 
where  the  rain  falls, — the  fields,  the  roads,  the  ponds,  the  roofs,  the  walks.  What 
becomes  of  it?  In  what  places  does  it  soak  in?  What  becomes  of  that  which  does 
not  soak  in?  How  have  you  seen  it  running  off?  What  does  a  rainstorm  do  to  the 
roads?  What  happens  to  creeks  and  ponds  during  a  rainstorm?  Why? 

What  becomes  of  the  rain  which  falls  on  roofs?  Why  is  some  of  it  saved? 
Tell  all  the  ways  in  which  we  use  rainwater.  Why  do  we  prefer  it  to  other  water? 


24 

How  does  the  water  or  rain  reach  the  sky?  There  is  always  moisture  in  the 
air  about  us.  Did  you  ever  put  snow,  or  ice,  or  very  cold  water  in  a  glass  in  a 
warm  room?  W!hat  happened  to  the  glass?  Where  did  the  drops  of  water  come 
from  ?  See  if  you  can  prove  that  this  is  true. 

Have  you  watched  the  spout  of  the  teakettle  when  the  water  is  boiling?  What 
comes  out?  Sometimes  the  teakettle  "boils  dry."  What  has  become  of  the  water? 
Try  this  at  home.  What  becomes  of  the  water  when  the  clothes  are  hung  out  to 
dry?  Water  passes  from  ponds,  creeks,  and  the  ocean  up  into  the  air  in  the  same 
way.  The  sun  and  the  wind  help  to  take  it,  or  dry  it  up,  as  we  say. 

When  much  of  this  steam  or  vapor  rises  high  in  the  air  we  see  clouds.  Then 
tiny  particles  of  vapor  may  blow  together,  and  grow  cold,  until  they  make  drops 
of  water  which  are  heavy  enough  to  fall.  Then  we  have  rain. 

Watch  for  any  little  pools  of  water  on  the  walks  or  other  places  from  which 
you  think  the  water  dries  up,  or  evaporates. 

BIRDS. — What  birds  may  we  look  for  that  have  not  been  with  us  all  winter? 
Which  come  first?  (Bluebird,  robin,  songsparrow,  meadow  lark  and  blackbird  will 
probably  be  noticed  first  by  the  children.) 

Where  have  the  birds  been  all  winter?  Why  have  they  returned?  Where  were 
the  birds  when  you  saw  them  first?  How  did  you  know  what  they  were? 

Describe  one  of  the  birds  that  you  saw,  so  that  the  class  may  guess  what  it 
is.  Do  not  tell  its  name.  Tell  its  song,  if  you  can. 

What  can  the  birds  find  to  eat  when  they  first  come  back?  (Early  insects.) 
Where  do  they  stay  at  night?  (In  sheltered  nooks.  They  like  evergreen  trees. 
Why?) 

What  harm  may  come  to  them  now?  How  can  we  show  that  we  are  glad  to 
have  them  come? 

Keep  on  the  blackboard  a  list  of  birds,  telling  date  on  which  they  were  seen, 
where  seen,  and  by  whom. 

Good  colored  pictures  of  birds  are  helpful  in  this  work.  A  pupil  may  take  a 
picture,  describe  it  accurately  and  carefully,  and  ask  someone  to  guess  the  bird 's 
name.  This  makes  an  interesting  language  lesson. 

TREES. — Name  and  locate  trees  of  as  many  kinds  as  the  pupils  know.  Elm, 
maple,  willow,  cottonwood,  oak  and  the  fruit  trees  will  probably  be  included  in  the 
list.  It  is  important  to  locate  definitely  the  particular  trees  mentioned  that  the 
teacher  may  be  sure  the  pupils  are  talking  intelligently  about  them. 

Visit  some  of  these  trees.  Choose  one  for  special  study.  Note  its  height,  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  top,  direction  of  branches,  etc.  Note  the  picture  it  makes 
against  the  sky.  How  does  it  differ  in  appearance  from  last  summer? 

Get  a  few  twigs  from  the  tree.  Look  carefully,  then  tell  what  you  think  may 
happen.  Put  them  in  water,  and  watch  them  every  day. 

What  happens  to  the  buds?  Notice  where  the  buds  are  placed,  what  their 
covering  is,  what  grows  from  them.  Are  they  all  alike? 

Keep  them  fresh  by  changing  the  water,  and  prevent  their  getting  too  warm. 

What  becomes  of  the  bud  scales?  Watch  the  leaves  unfold.  What  color  are 
they?  Wfrat  besides  leaves  grow  from  the  buds?  Which  come  first,  leaves  or  flowers? 
Watch  carefully  what  becomes  of  the  flowers. 

Keep  the  twigs  as  long  as  possible.  When  the  buds  have  developed  get  a  few 
more  from  the  tree,  and  compare. 

Draw  and  cut  pictures  of  trees  showing  the  early  Spring  aspect. 

GARDEN. — Before  outdoor  gardening  is  possible  for  the  little  ones  their  in- 
terest may  be  aroused  and  given  intelligent  direction  by  indoor  work.  There  is 
perhaps  no  pleasanter  way  to  begin  than  by  making  window  gardens  in  the  school- 
room. The  "eggshell"  garden  will  probably  be  most  attractive  to  the  children. 
It  permits  greater  individuality  in  the  work,  and  makes  transplanting  somewhat 
safer,  especially  if  the  plants  are  taken  home  for  that  purpose. 

The  eggshell  should  have  a  hole  pricked  in  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and  then 
be  filled  with  soil.  Two  or  three  seeds  should  be  planted  in  each  shell,  and  care- 
fully covered.  The  shells  should  be  marked  with  the  owner's  name  and  the  date, 
then  placed  in  a  shallow  box  of  sand  for  safe  keeping.  The  seeds  mentioned  in 
the  outline  are  suitable  for  this  work. 

Where  shall  we  keep  the  seeds  now?     What  do  they  need?     How  can  we  take 


25 

care  of  them  ?  These  matters  should  be  considered  in  class,  and  the  responsibility 
for  good  care  should  be  left  to  the  owners. 

Pupils  enjoy  keeping  a  written  record  of  this  garden  work,  and  can  thus 
practice  several  needed  points  in  written  forms.  A  record  might  read  something 
like  this: 

March  4,  Monday.  I  planted  three  cabbage  seeds  in  an  eggshell.  I  put  the 
eggshell  in  a  box  of  sand. 

March     5,  Tuesday.     I  watered  my  seeds. 

March     6,  Wednesday.     I  did  not  see  anything. 

March     7,  Thursday.    I  did  not  see  anything. 

March     8,  Friday.     I  gave  the  seeds  more  water. 

March     9,  Saturday. 

March  10,  Sunday. 

March  11,  Monday.    I  saw  two  sprouts.     I  gave  them  water.     Etc. 

In  any  of  this  work  beginnings  in  written  composition  may  be  made  by  giving 
the  pupils  a  series  of  written  questions,  the  answers  to  which  form  a  connected 
account  of  some  subject  of  study.  For  example: 

Where  does  the  rain  come  from? 

Why  do  we  like  rain? 

What  does  rain  do  for  plants? 

What  does  rain  do  for  animals? 

The  Language  Course  contains  poems  and  stories  which  will  add  interest  to 
the  nature  study  of  the  month. 

APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOR  APRIL  AXD  MAY.— Continue  the  study  of  weather,  as  before. 

Study  hen  and  chickens.  Where  do  hens  malce  nests?  Gathering  eggs — their 
sizes  and  colors.  Setting  the  hens.  Caring  for  them.  Chicks — their  food,  care, 
enemies.  Make  poultry  house  and  yard.  A  comparative  study  of  ducks,  geese,  and 
turkeys  with  chicks  if  time  permits. 

Identify  common  wild  flowers.  Keep  fresh  bouquets  at  school.  Plant  wild 
flower  gardens  at  home  and  at  school. 

Begin  to  make  plans  for  next  fall's  exhibit  of  flowers  and  vegetables.  Advise 
with  pupils  as  to  individual  gardens  at  home.  Seeds  suggested  for  March  planting 
are  good.  Plant  various  kinds  of  gourds  as  screens  for  outbuildings  and  fences. 

Make  a  trip  to  a  pond  to  observe  life  in  the  water.  Special  study  of  frog's  or 
toad's  eggs  and  tadpoles.  Follow  life  history  in  aquarium  in  schoolroom. 

Continue  observations  of  birds  and  trees  as  in  last  month. 

THE  SEASON. — Problems  similar  to  those  given  last  month  may  be  continued, 
and  the  varied  out-door  interests  will  suggest  many  more.  A  large  number  of 
topics  is  suggested  this  month  for  use  in  schools  which  are  in  session  during  May, 
and  because  we  wish  to  put  the  children  into  active  touch  with  the  wealth  of  material 
which  the  springtime  affords.  Xow  the  grass  is  growing,  the  leaves  are  out,  the 
birds  are  building  and  singing,  the  field  work  has  begun, — life  is  stirring,  every- 
where. Our  calendar  will  scarcely  afford  room  to  record  nor  the  day  give  us  time 
to  discuss  the  riches  of  the  season  as  they  crowd  upon  us.  The  topics  here  suggested 
are  but  a  few  of  those  which  are  easy  of  access  and  full  of  interest. 

HEX  AXD  CHICKENS.— A  visit  by  the  class  to  some  poultry  yard  gives  in- 
terest, reality,  and  unity  to  this  work,  and  is  most  desirable  when  it  can  be  done. 

Who  of  you  have  chickens  at  home?  What  kind  are  they?  Tell  how  they  look. 
How  do  you  care  for  them? 

Where  do  the  hens  have  their  nests?  Who  gathers  the  eggs?  Do  you  like  to 
do  it?  Why?  Notice  if  the  eggs  are  all  the  same  size,  and  color. 

What  are  some  of  the  hens  doing  in  the  spring  time?  Where  do  they  sit? 
How  many  eggs  are  put  in  a  nest?  What  must  the  hen  do  with  them?  What 
does  she  do  for  food  and  drink?  How  long  is  it  until  the  eggs  hatch? 

Describe  the  little  chickens  when  they  are  first  hatched.  What  is  their  food? 
How  do  they  drink  ?  How  does  the  mother  hen  care  for  them  ?  How  do  people 
usually  help  the  hens  that  have  chicks  to  care  for?  (Provide  food  and  water,  coops 
for  shelter.)  What  harm  comes  to  chicks  sometimes?  (Storms,  hawks,  weasels, 
skunks. ) 


26 

CONSTRUCTION. — If  the  barnyard  construction  suggested  for  January  has 
been  preserved,  a  poultry  yard  and  house  may  now  be  added.  If  not,  it  may  be 
made  independently.  A  good-sized  cardboard  box  of  suitable  shape  may  be  used, 
and  perches  with  tiny  boxes  for  nests  may  be  made  and  placed  in  it.  Small  feed- 
ing pens  may  be  outlined,  and  floors  covered  with  sand.  Watering  pans  may  be 
made  of  clay. 

Coops  may  be  added  by  making  small  rectangular  boxes  of  cardboard,  leaving 
one  side  open.  Cut  slits  with  a  small  sharp  knife,  opposite  each  other,  along  the 
vertical  sides  of  the  opening.  For  slats  cut  narrow  strips  of  cardboard  and  stick 
through  the  slits  across  the  opening.  A  triangular  coop  is  even  easier  to  make. 
Fold  an  oblong  of  cardboard  so  that  it  will  stand  thus  A.  Cut  slits  opposite  each 
other,  and  stick  narrow  strips  of  cardboard  through  as  before.  The  yard  is  now 
ready  for  its  occupants,  which  may  be  made  from  clay,  cut  from  paper,  or  toy 
chicks  brought  from  home. 

If  time  permits  it  will  be  very  interesting  at  this  point  to  study  ducks,  geese, 
or  turkeys  in  comparison  with  chickens.  Pupils  should  report  upon  likenesses  and 
differences  in  habits,  food,  care,  usefulness,  etc. 

WILD  FLOWEES. — The  common  wild  flowers  of  the  vicinity  should  be  noted 
in  their  natural  surroundings.  Violets,  dandelions,  etc.,  may  be  gathered  for  school 
and  home  decoration,  each  kind  making  a  bouquet  by  itself  until  pupils  learn  how 
to  make  combinations  that  harmonize.  Children  should  be  taught  to  pick  the  flowers 
with  long  stems,  and  to  gather  only  as  many  as  will  be  cared  for,  thus  influencing 
them  against  wanton  destruction. 

A  source  of  great  pleasure  in  many  places  where  it  has  been  tried  is  the  mak- 
ing of  a  wild  flower  garden.  A  few  violets,  hepaticas,  bloodroots,  trilliums,  and 
Dutchman's  breeches  brought  from  the  woods  and  planted  under  a  tree  or  in  a 
shady  corner  will  amply  repay  with  early  blossoms  the  slight  care  they  need  and 
will  be  a  perennial  joy  to  all. 

GARDEN  WOEK. — The  plants  in  the  eggshell  garden  will  now  be  ready  for 
transplanting.  Whether  they  are  put  into  a  school  garden  or  taken  home  depends 
upon  circumstances.  The  chief  thing  to  secure  is  the  children's  intelligent  interest 
in  the  nurture  of  the  plants.  This  can  usually  be  attained  best  through  the  indi- 
vidual garden  at  home,  which  is  the  result,  in  part  at  least,  of  interest  and  knowledge 
stimulated  at  school. 

Discuss  the  reasons  for  transplanting.  What  do  the  plants  need,  now  that  they 
are  growing  so  large?  How  can  we  provide  more  soil  and  room,  and  see  that  they 
have  water  and  sunlight1?  How  shall  the  soil  be  prepared  for  the  little  plants? 
What  is  the  best  time  to  move  them?  How  shall  they  be  put  in  their  new  places? 

This  month  we  should  make  plans  for  a  garden  exhibit  in  the  fall.  Pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  plant  only  a  few  vegetables  or  flowers;  perhaps  only  one 
kind,  and  make  that  as  good  as  it  can  be.  Tomatoes,  cabbages,  nasturtiums,  four- 
o 'clocks  and  asters  are  satisfactory  plants  for  this  purpose. 

In  class  the  teacher  and  pupils  may  examine  pictures  of  these  plants  in  cata- 
logs, decide  what  each  pupil  will  have,  discuss  how  it  is  to  be  planted  and  cared 
for.  A  written  lesson  will  help  impress  the  facts  upon  the  memory,  and  a  record 
kept  at  school  of  the  work  each  pupil  does  and  of  the  progress  of  his  plants  will 
sustain  his  interest  and  effort  when  the  novelty  of  the  work  begins  to  lose  its  force. 

An  interest  in  maintaining  the  good  appearance  of  the  school  premises  may  be 
secured  by  planting  gourds,  wild  cucumbers,  or  other  similar  vines  along  fences, 
or  as  screens  for  outbuildings.  This  is  so  easy  to  do  that  the  small  pupils  can 
thus  become  helpers  in  the  school  family.  They  will  enjoy  the  gourds  in  the  fall. 

POND  LIFE. — Make  a  visit  to  a  pond  and  see  how  many  live  things  you  can 
find.  Watch  for  toads  and  frogs.  Where  have  they  been  all  winter?  What  are 
they  doing  now?  How  many  different  things  can  you  see  them  doing? 

Some  of  the  toads  and  frogs  have  laid  eggs  in  the  water.  The  eggs  of  the 
toad  look  like  long  strings  of  black  beads  in  a  clear  jelly-like  substance;  those  of 
the  frog  are  in  a  mass,  not  a  string,  so  it  is  easy  to  get  the  kind  one  wishes. 

Some  eggs  can  be  kept  in  a  low,  wide,  glass  bowl  partly  filled  with  pond  water. 
They  will  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and  must  be  watched  very  closely  or  the  changes 
will  escape  even  the  sharpest  eyes.  Only  a  few  should  be  kept  as  the  tadpoles  are 
likely  to  starve  if  too  many  are  in  the  bowl.  Water  plants  and  water  from  the 


27 

pond  should  be  used  to  supply  food  for  the  growing  tadpoles  as  they  subsist  upon 
the  minute  plant  forms  from  the  bottom  of  the  pond. 

Questions  such  as  these  should  be  answered  as  well  as  possible  from  obser- 
vation : 

How  many  days  from  the  time  the  eggs  were  brought  in  until  they  hatched! 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  tiny  tadpole?  What  does  it  do?  How  does  it  eat?  How 
does  it  get  the  air?  When  do  its  legs  appear?  Which  ones  first?  What  happens 
to  its  head  ?  What  becomes  of  its  tall  ?  Here  again  a  written  record  is  of  much 
value.  It  emphasizes  the  need  to  '  *  be  sure  you  are  right,  and  then  look  again. ' ' 

BIKDS  AXD  TKEES. — The  nest-building  activities  of  the  birds  will  attract 
most  attention  from  the  children  at  this  time.  Quiet  and  patient  watching  of  some 
neighborly  robin  or  flicker  will  be  repaid  by  many  unusual  opportunities  for  close 
acquaintance  and  friendship  between  the  birds  and  the  children.  The  building  of 
the  nest,  the  feeding  the  young,  and  the  teaching  to  fly  can  all  be  seen  by  a  little 
quiet  effort. 

Closer  acquaintance  with  the  trees  comes  with  observance  of  leaf -forms.  Leaves 
may  be  drawn  and  colored,  gathered  for  bouquets,  and  in  various  ways  be  identified 
with  the  trees  which  were  made  familiar  by  earlier  study. 


28 


LESSONS  FOR  THIRD  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  SEPTEMBER.— (Ten  minutes  daily;  or,  preferably,  three  15 
or  20  minute  periods  each  week.  Alternating  with  fourth  year  work.)  The  garden; 
follow  up  spring  work  of  school  or  home.  Have  each  child  make  list  of  vegetables 
grown  in  home  garden.  Special  study  of  tomato  plant;  different  kindte  of  tomatoes 
brought  from  home;  select  the  best  and  prepare  seed  for  storage;  note  general  habit 
of  plant;  height;  methods  of  supporting  plants  from  ground.  Uses  of  tomatoes  in 
the  hom>e;  how  cooked;  how  kept  for  winter. 

Climbing  plants;  morning  glory,  wild  cucumber,  sweet  pea,  gourds,  woodbine, 
bittersweet,  etc.  Identify  as  many  as  possible;  study  manner  of  clinging  to  supports. 
Save  seed  for  planting. 

THE  FALL  ASPECT  OF  THE  HOME  AND  THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN. 
LESSON  1. — This  lesson  should  consist  of  an  informal  discussion  of  the  garden. 
Have  the  children  recall  what  seeds  were  planted  in  the  spring.  Who  of  the  children 
have  gardens  of  their  own?  Who  have  done  any  work  in  the  home  garden  during 
the  summer?  How  many  have  grown  both  vegetables  and  flowers?  Are  any  of  the 
flowers  in  bloom?  Have  any  of  them  stopped  blooming?  If  there  are  any  flowers 
and  vegetables  in  the  school  garden,  use  those  for  special  study. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  in  the  garden  and  flower  beds  at  home  and  come  to- 
morrow ready  to  tell  how  many  different  kinds  of  vegetables  and  flowers  they  find 
there. 

LESSON  2. — Ask  the  children  to  report  on  their  observations  made  at  home. 
Let  one  of  the  children  pass  to  the  board  and  write  the  names  of  the  different  kinds 
of  vegetables  and  flowers  reported.  Then  take  up  various  ones  for  discussion.  Which 
of  these  plants  are  still  green  and  fresh,  and  which  ones  are  dry  and  dead?  Which 
may  be  stored  for  future  use  and  which  ones  have  been  used  earlier  in  the  season? 

LESSON  3. — (For  this  lesson  the  teacher  should  have  in  class  several  different 
kinds  of  garden  and  flower  seeds,  raised  in  the  neighborhood.)  Study  different 
methods  of  seed  forming  among  the  garden  vegetables.  Notice  the  flat  pods  of 
the  beans  and  peas.  Open  some  of  these  to  find  the  seeds  and  note  how  the  seeds 
are  fastened  to  the  pods.  Will  these  pods  break  open  if  left  on  the  vines? 

Study  the  round  pods  of  the  radish  and  open  up  to  find  the  seeds  inside.  How 
do  these  differ  from  the  pods  of  the  beans  and  peas?  Notice  the  flying  seeds  of 
the  lettuce.  A  few  minutes  may  be  given  to  discussing  how  these  seeds  may  be 
gathered  and  stored  for  use  next  spring.  If  there  is  a  school  garden  gather  and 
store  some  seeds. 

LESSON  4. — Continue  the  discussion  of  the  vegetables  by  having  the  children 
report  on  the  part  of  each  used  for  food.  Have  them  notice  the  fruit  of  the  squash, 
the  pumpkin,  and  the  tomato,  the  roots  of  parsnips,  carrots,  beets  and  sweet  potato, 
the  tuber  of  the  potato,  the  seeds  of  corn,  beans,  peas,  and  the  leaves  of  lettuce, 
cabbage  and  the  stems  of  celery.  A  brief  discussion  of  how  some  of  these  may  be 
stored  for  future  use  may  be  worth  while. 

THE  TOMATO.  LESSON  5. — How  many  children  have  tomatoes  in  their  home 
garden?  Do  the  plants  stand  up  tall  and  straight,  or  do  they  trail  upon  the  ground? 
Has  anyone  fixed  supports  of  some  kind  for  the  tomato  plants?  What  is  the 
advantage  of  these  supports?  (They  keep  the  vines  from  trailing  upon  the  ground 
so  that  the  fruit  may  be  held  up  in  the  sun  and  light.)  Are  there  any  flowers  on 
the  vines,  any  green  tomatoes,  any  ripe  ones?  Ask  each  child  to  bring  at  least  one 
tomato  flower  for  study  the  next  day. 

LESSON  6. — (The  teacher  should  have  in  class  a  portion  of  a  tomato  plant 
with  some  of  the  flowers  and  fruit  in  various  stages  of  development.)  Where  are 
the  flowers?  Does  anyone  know  how  early  the  first  flower  appears?  (Sometimes 
the  plants  begin  to  blossom  the  last  of  May  or  the  first  of  June.)  What  is  the 
color  of  the  flower?  What  part  of  the  flower  stays  on  to  make  the  fruit  which  we 


29 

eatf  (This  may  easily  be  observed  by  looking  at  the  tiny  green  tomatoes  which  are 
just  beginning  to  form.  The  children  will  see  that  it  is  the  little  knob-like  part 
in  the  center  of  the  flower.  If  they  wish  to  know  the  name,  tell  them  it  is  the  ovary, 
the  lowest  part  of  the  pistil.)  Ask  each  child  to  bring  one  ripe  tomato  for  the  next 
day's  lesson.  They  may  be  told  that  the  tomato  is  a  good  example  of  the  kind  of 
fruit  that  we  call  a  berry. 

LESSON  7. —  (If  the  teacher  can  have  in  class  two  or  three  tomatoes  of  choice 
varieties  they  will  add  to  the  interest  of  the  lesson.)  Have  the  children  examine 
the  different  tomatoes  brought  in  and  then  decide  whether  or  not  all  are  the  same 
kind.  Which  ones  are  the  finest  looking,  the  smoothest,  the  best  shape?  Can  we 
tell  just  by  looking  at  the  outside  of  tomato  whether  or  not  it  is  the  kind  we 
want  to  save  for  seed?  What  are  the  things  we  like  to  have  in  a  tomato?  (The 
points  may  be  brought  out  that  we  desire  thick,  juicy  meat,  of  sweet  flavor,  and 
very  few  seeds.) 

Cut  the  tomatoes  crosswise  through  the  middle  and  compare  different  ones  as  to 
the  amount  of  meat  and  the  number  of  seeds.  "Where  are  the  seeds?  Are  they 
fastened  to  the  pulp  of  the  tomato?  (If  you  are  not  sure  of  this,  cut  open  a  green 
tomato,  which  will  show  how  they  are  attached  much  better  than  a  ripe  one.  If 
the  drawing  is  correlated  with  nature  study,  this  cross  section  makes  as  excellent 
object  to  sketch  or  paint.) 

LESSOX  8. — Let  the  children  decide  which  of  the  tomatoes  studied  in  Lesson 
7  they  prefer  to  save  for  seed.  How  shall  we  save  the  seed?  How  is  it  done  at 
home?  Eemove  the  seeds  with  as  little  of  the  pulp  as  possible.  Wash  the  pulp 
out  and  spread  the  seeds  on  a  piece  of  paper  to  dry.  When  dry  place  in  an 
envelope,  label  neatly,  and  put  away  for  the  winter.  (This  work  may  be  done  by 
the  pupils  in  a  study  period.) 

LESSOX  9. — Discuss  the  value  and  uses  of  tomatoesT^>Let  one  child  write  on 
the  board  while  others  name  all  the  different  ways  that  tomato^are  used  for  food. 
They  will  probably  name  most  of  the  following:  stewed,  stuffeoxand  baked,  fried, 
cooked  with  corn,  scalloped,  sliced,  and  made  into  salads.  How  are  they  kept  for 
future  use?  Canned,  preserved,  and  pickled.  It  may  be  worth  while>p.ending  a 
short  time  telling  the  children  of  the  canning  industry.  This  will  help  them  to 
see  how  plants  that  are  grown  in  their  home  garden  mean  the  making  of  a  living 
to  people  in  other  localities.  Perhaps  some  of  the  children  have  visited  canning 
factories.  If  so,  they  should  be  given  the  opportunity  to  tell  what  they  have  seen. 
At  least  the  children  should  know  that  in  the  vicinity  of  towns  where  canning 
factories  are  located  many  people  plant  large  tracts  with  tomatoes.  These  are 
gathered  and  taken  to  the  factories,  where  other  people  peel  and  can  them.  The 
children  will  probably  know  that  the  cans  used  are  made  of  tin.  The  cans  are  then 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  where  grocers  sell  them  for  people  to  use  in 
their  homes. 

CLIMBIXG  PLAXTS.  THE  MORXIXG  GLOKY.  LESSOX  10.— Ask  the 
children  how  many  of  them  have  morning  glory  vines  at  home.  Where  'are  they 
growing?  How  high  are  they?  How  do  they  manage  to  grow  so  high?  Look  at 
the  vines  to  determine  how  they  climb.  (This  should  be  an  observation  lesson  either 
at  home  or  at  school.  The  children  will  find  that  the  morning  glory  vine  climbs  by 
twining  its  stem  around  some  support.)  Do  all  the  stems  twine  in  the  same  direction? 
What  is  the  advantage  to  the  plants  of  the  climbing  habit?  Could  the  stems  grow 
as  tall  as  they  are  and  stand  erect  without  also  growing  much  thicker? 

THE  LEAVES.  LESSOX  11. — Are  there  many  leaves  on  one  stem?  Where 
are  the  leaves  ?  Do  you  find  as  many  on  the  side  of  the  stem  next  to  the  window  or 
the  support  as  on  the  outside?  Are  they  close  enough  together  to  make  a  good 
screen?  Is  this  a  good  vine  to  use  to  cover  ugly  buildings  or  fences?  Is  it  a  good 
one  to  train  over  a  window  or  a  porch  to  keep  the  sunlight  out  ?  Ask  the  children  to 
observe  the  vines  at  home  to  note  the  position  of  the  flowers  and  to  look  at  the 
flowers  in  the  evening  and  again  in  the  morning.  Ask  the  children  to  bring  to  class 
a  few  flowers  that  have  already  opened  and  a  few  buds.  What  time  of  the  year 
does  the  morning  glory  begin  to  bloom?  Have  the  children  try  to  recall  the  first 
time  they  saw  the  flowers  this  year.  (Morning  glories  often  begin  to  flower  the 
latter  part  of  July.)  Do  they  continue  to  flower  all  the  rest  of  the  summer?  Do 


30 

the  flowers  stay  open  all  day?  Did  anyone  ever  arise  early  enough  to  see  the  flowers 
open  up  in  the  morning?  Why  are  they  called  morning  glories?  Does  a  flower 
open  more  than  once?  (Leave  this  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  by  observation.  Mark 
the  flower  by  tying  a  string  around  the  stem  or  in  some  other  way,  and  then  watch 
to  see  if  it  opens  more  than  once.)  Examine  one  of  the  flower  buds.  Notice  how 
it  is  twisted  up  at  the  end.  Compare  this  with  the  closed  up  flower. 

LESSON  12. — (Have  in  class  some  flowers  that  have  just  ceased  blooming, 
some  that  are  two  or  three  days  old,  some  green  seed  pods  and  some  that  are  almost 
ripe.  Have  the  children  try  to  determine  what  part  of  the  flower  developed  and 
made  the  fruit  or  seed  pod.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  pod?  Open  it  up  to  find  how 
many  little  apartments  are  in  it.  What  is  the  color  of  the  seed?  Do  the  pods 
break  open  and  scatter  the  seeds? 

(Morning  glories  sow  their  own  seed,  by  the  pods  bursting  and  throwing  the 
seeds  a  short  distance  from  the  plant.  The  seeds  lie  in  the  ground  all  winter 
and  start  to  grow  early  in  the  spring.)  Who  knows  the  wild  morning  glory?  This 
is  a  very  bad  weed  that  is  sometimes  found  in  our  cornfields,  sometimes  it  almost 
covers  the  wire  fences  around  the  fields.  It  blossoms  in  the  summer,  having  a  large 
white  flower  similar  in  shape  to  that  of  the  tame  morning  glory. 

LESSON  13. — Tell  the  children  to  look  for  other  climbing  plants  about  the 
home  and  school.  Which  of  these  are  planted  each  year,  which  ones  live  year 
after  year?  How  do  these  vines  climb?  If  possible,  study  the  sweet  pea  or  the  wild 
cucumber  to  find  the  small  tendrils  which  these  vines  use  in  climbing.  Have  the 
children  examine  grape  vines  to  see  how  they  climb.  Then  have  them  make  a 
list  of  all  vines  they  know  that  climb  by  twining  and  those  that  climb  by  tendrils. 
They  may  find  some  that  use  both  methods.  Do  they  know  some  vines  that  live 
from  year  to  year?  (Perhaps  some  may  have  the  woodbine,  wistaria,  honeysuckle  or 
some  other  perennial  vine  at  home.  If  so,  spend  some  time  identifying  and  study- 
ing them.)  Have  the  children  decide  which  they  like  best  of  all  the  vines  they 
know.  Which  are  good  ones  to  plant  in  the  school  yard  next  year? 

LESSONS  14-15. — Make  plans  for  the  Harvest  Home  Festival. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  OCTOBEE. — Note  seeds  scattered  by  wind,  by  floating  on  water 
(curly  dock},  clinging  to  coats  of  animals  (burs},  indigestible'  seeds  of  edible  fruits 
scattered  by  birds  and  squirrels  (berries,  etc.).  Make  chart  of  various  kind's  of  burs 
("stickers");  make  chairs,  etc.,  from  burdock  burs.  Identify  and  observe  habits  of 
social  insects,  bees,  wasps,  ants.  Collect  caterpillars  and  chrysalis  or  cocoon  of  vari- 
ous forms  and  keep  in  schoolroom;  discover  food  plant  of  caterpillars  and  study 
feeding  habits;  note  changes. 

(Seventeen  lessons  planned.) 

THE  DISSEMINATION  OF  SEEDS.  LESSON  1.— Begin  the  lesson  by  call- 
ing attention  to  the  fact  that  everywhere  plants  are  beginning  to  wither  and  die. 
Are  the  garden  plants  as  fresh  as  they  were  a  month  ago?  Name  some  plants  in 
the  garden  that  are  no  longer  green.  What  have  these  plants  done  to  get  ready 
to  produce  new  plants  next  year?  We  gather  the  seeds  from  the  garden  plants  and 
save  them  to  plant  next  spring.  Do  wild  flowers  and  weeds  make  any  preparation 
for  a  new  crop  next  year?  What  provisions  have  they  made  to  scatter  and  plant 
their  seeds?  Ask  the  children  to  bring  to  class  tomorrow  some  seeds  of  weeds  and 
wild  flowers.  If  possible,  bring  some  milkweed  pods.  (The  teacher  should  have  a 
collection  of  milkweed  pods,  thistle  heads,  dandelions,  wild  asters.) 

THE  MILKWEED.  LESSON  2.— (For  this  study  the  teacher  should  have  an 
entire  milkweed  plant,  with  as  much  of  the  underground  portion  as  possible.) 
Where  do  milkweeds  grow?  (Let  the  children  name  all  the  places  in  which  they  have 
seen  these  plants  growing.)  Why  are  they  called  milkweeds?  (No  doubt  every 
child  has  seen  the  milky  juice  that  has  poured  from  the  plant  wherever  it  is  broken.) 
Have  the  children  ever  seen  animals  eat  the  milkweed?  (The  milky  juice  is  bitter 
and  distasteful  to  most  animals,  hence  they  leave  it  alone.)  Notice  the  leaves  of 
the  plant.  Are  there  many  or  few?  Are  they  still  green  or  have  they  stopped 


31 

their  work?  Where  are  the  pods?  Are  they  arranged  singly  or  in  clusters?  Who 
has  ever  seen  a  milkweed  flower?  (This  plant  has  a  dense  cluster  of  greenish 
lavender  flowers.  It  blossoms  during  July  and  August.) 

LESSOX  3. — Carefully  open  one  of  the  closed  pods.  How  are  the  seeds  ar- 
ranged? What  is  the  color  of  the  seeds?  What  is  attached  to  one  end?  Take  out 
a  few  of  the  seeds  and  notice  how  the  soft,  silky  portion  spreads  out.  What  is  the 
use  of  this  feathery  part  ?  Throw  a  seed  upward,  and  notice  how  the  umbrella  or 
parachute  carries  the  seed  along  through  the  air.  Watch  the  seed  alight.  Which 
conies  down  first,  the  seed  or  the  parachute?  Is  the  seed  attached  firmly  to  the 
parachute?  Strike  it  gently  to  see  if  it  will  drop  off.  (Sometimes  the  seed  as  it 
floats  along  strikes  some  object  and  drops,  leaving  the  parachute  floating  onward. 
Sometimes  the  seed  flies  far  away  and  the  parachute  and  the  seed  settle  down 
together.  It  is  in  this  way  the  milkweed  seeds  are  planted.  Sometimes  the  seed 
travels  many  miles  from  the  parent  plant  before  it  settles  down  to  produce  a  new 
plant  next  year.) 

LESSOX  4. — How  many  seeds  in  one  pod?  (The  children  may  count  the  seeds 
in  several  pods  to  see  if  they  vary.  Look  at  the  inside  of  the  pod  after  all  the 
seeds  are  out  and  note  how  velvety  and  smooth  it  is.  Do  the  milkweed  plants 
die  in  the  fall,  or  do  they  live  allVinter?  (To  help  solve  this  problem  examine 
the  portion  of  the  plant  that  was  in  the  ground  and  find  the  rather  thick  root  and 
root  stock.  Milkweeds  live  ou  year  after  year.  The  stem  and  leaves  die,  but  the 
part  that  is  in  the  ground  lives  over  winter.  In  the  spring  it  sends  up  new  stems, 
blossoms,  and  bears  seeds  another  year.  So  you  see  the  milkweed  has  two  ways  of 
starting  new  plants  every  year.) 

LESSOX  5. — Ask  the  children  to  bring  in  other  specimens  of  fly-away  seeds. 
(Among  these  they  will  find  the  dandelion  head,  the  thistle,  golden  rod  and  wild 
asters.)  Look  at  the  fluffy  dandelion  ball.  How  are  the  seeds  fastened  to  the 
rounded  stem  ?  Xotice  the  long,  thin  stem  of  the  parachute  fastened  to  the  small, 
hard  seeds.  Watch  how  the  seeds  sail  away,  high  up  in  the  air.  Are  there  many 
dandelion  seeds  on  one  plant?  Can  you  see  why  so  many  dandelions  grow  up  in 
the  yards  and  pastures  each  year  ? 

Xow  look  at  the  thistle  head.  How  many  of  the  children  know  the  flower  of 
the  thistle?  How  many  have  ever  seen  bumble  bees  feeding  on  the  purple  flowers? 
Have  any  seen  the  wild  canaries  or  goldfinches  feeding  upon  the  seeds  of  the 
thistle?  (The  goldfinch  is  very  fond  of  thistle  heads,  and  because  of  this  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  thistle  bird.)  Have  the  children  pull  the  head  apart  to  find 
how  the  seeds  are  fastened  to  the  parachutes.  In  the  same  way  examine  the  other 
lly-aAvay  seeds. 

LESSOX"  6. — Start  a  chart  of  seed  fliers.  Procure  a  sheet  of  stiff  cardboard 
and  arrange  five  or  six  seeds  of  each  plant  in  a  group.  Stick  these  to  the  cardboard 
with  common  mucilage  or  library  paste.  This  may  be  done  either  in  class  or  at 
a  study  period. 

LESSOX^  7. — Ask  the  children  to  think  of  some  seeds  that  fly  away  by  other 
means  than  by  parachutes.  Recall  the  maple  seeds  studied  in  the  spring.  These 
seeds  fly  with  wings  that  carry  them  away  from  the  parent  plant.  Make  a  collec- 
tion of  winged  seeds  for  the  chart  and  spend  one  day  in  studying  them  and  finding 
out  how  they  fly.  Among  these  they  will  find  the  box  elder,  ash,  catalpa  and  hard 
maple. 

THE  BURDOCK.  LESSOX'  8.— Some  plants  have  other  ways  of  distributing 
their  seeds.  Can  you  think  of  some  that  take  hold  of  your  clothing  or  the  fur  of  ani- 
mals and  are  carried  into  new  fields?  How  many  know  the  burdock?  Where  does  it 
like  to  grow?  (It  is  found  in  vacant  lots,  by  the  roadside,  among  the  shrubbery  and 
sometimes  in  pastures.)  Ask  the  children  to  bring  some  of  the  burs  for  the  next 
day's  lesson.  Tell  them  to  notice  how  tall  and  straight  the  plant  grows,  whether  it 
has  large  or  small  leaves,  and  whether  there  are  any  flowers  still  left  on  the  stems? 

LESSOX'  9. —  (The  teacher  should  have  in  class  some  of  the  large  burdock  leaves 
and  a  stem,  with  small  leaves  and  the  burs.)  Have  the  children  report  on  the  obser- 
vation made  outside  of  school.  Did  anyone  find  plants  with  large  leaves  growing 
close  to  the  ground?  Did  these  plants  have  stems  with  burs  onf  (These  plants  grew 


32 

from  seeds  last  spring.  They  will  send  up  tall  stems  and  have  flowers  and  burs 
next  year.  Burdocks  live  two  years  before  they  have  seeds,  hence  they  are  called 
biennials.)  Count  the  number  of  burs  on  one  branch.  Look  at  one  of  the  burs  and 
determine  what  enables  it  to  hold  fast  to  your  clothing.  Are  these  hooks  on  all 

sides  ? 

LESSON  10. — Where  are  the  seeds  of  the  burdock?  Look  down  into  the  center 
of  the  bur  and  find  the  seeds  nestling  down  in  the  middle.  Remove  and  count  the 
seeds  found  in  two  or  three  burs.  Do  you  think  all  of  the  seeds  are  likely  to  fall 
out  of  the  bur  at  one  time?  (They  do  not.  When  you  carry  a  bur  on  your  clothing 
one  seed  after  another  falls  out,  so  you  are  really  sowing  the  seeds  as  you  walk 
along.) 

LESSON  11. — How  can  we  get  rid  of  burdocks?  Will  the  plant  die  if  you  cut 
the  root  oif  below  the  surface  of  the  ground?  Here  are  some  interesting  experiments 
worth  trying:  Cut  one  plant  off  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Cut  another 
two  inches  below  the  surface.  Cut  the  upper  part  from  another  and  pour  kerosene 
on  the  root.  On  another  place  a  little  muriatic  acid,  and  on  yet  another  place  some 
salt.  (If  possible,  let  the  children  start  these  experiments  at  home,  marking  the 
various  ones,  so  that  they  may  be  identified  and  later  report  on  results.  Let  the 
children  think  of  other  ways  to  prevent  new  plants  of  burdock  coming  into  their 
gardens.  Among  these  should  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  the  plants  should  never 
be  allowed  to  go  to  seed.  When  they  begin  to  flower,  the  stems  should  be  cut  down 
and  burned. 

LESSON  12. — Have  the  children  bring  in  other  seed  stickers.  (Among  these 
they  will  find  the  cockle  bur,  Spanish  needles,  beggars'  lice,  and  wild  carrot.)  Make 
a  study  of  each  of  these,  having  the  children  determine  how  these  seeds  manage  to 
catch  a  ride  and  travel  far  away  from  the  parent  plant. 

LESSON  13. — Make  a  chart  of  seed  stickers  on  cardboard  similar  to  that  of 
the  fly-aways.  These  seeds  may  be  arranged  in  very  pretty  designs  on  the  cardboard. 
The  children  may  also  make  out  of  both  burdock  and  cockle  burs  very  interesting 
baskets  with  handles,  armchairs,  and  even  tables,  sticking  the  burs  together  with 
their  hooks. 

SEEDS  THAT  FLOAT.  LESSON  14. — We  have  found  that  some  seeds  are 
carried  out  into  the  world  by  the  wind  and  others  carried  by  animals  and  people.  Can 
you  think  of  other  ways  in  which  the  seeds  may  travel?  A  few  seeds  that  you  know 
float  upon  water.  If  the  milkweed  seed  happens  to  alight  in  a  stream  of  water  it 
does  not  sink,  but  floats  away  on  the  top.  Look  at  one  of  the  brown  seeds  and  find 
the  thin  part  around  the  seed  that  enables  it  to  float.  Do  you  know  the  seeds  of  the 
curly  dock?  You  will  find  them  in  great  brown  bunches  at  the  top  of  the  dock  stem. 
Place  some  of  these  seeds  in  a  pan  of  water  and  watch  to  see  what  they  do.  These 
are  very  good  swimmers  and  may  be  carried  long  distances  from  the  parent  plant  by 
little  streams  of  water. 

LESSON  15. — There  is  still  another  kind  of  seed  traveler  that  you  will  be 
interested  to  know.  How  many  of  you  know  the  pig-weed  that  grows  so  abundantly 
in  the  gardens?  Bring  in  a  few  of  these  weeds  and  have  the  children  find  the  tiny 
black  seeds.  Some  of  the  pig  weeds  grow  tall  and  straight,  some  creep  along  on  the 
ground,  while  others  spread  out  like  a  great  round  ball.  The  round  ones  break  off 
close  to  the  ground  and  the  wind  rolls  them  over  and  over,  and  they  scatter  the 
seeds  as  they  roll  along. 

Ask  the  children  to  look  for  tickle  or  Old  Witch  grass,  that  tumbles  along  in 
the  same  fashion.  Sometimes  on  a  windy  day  the  wind  catches  these  up  from  the 
ground  and  they  float  long  distances  and  collect  in  great  brown  piles  in  the  corners 
of  the  hedges  and  fences.  Have  the  children  bring  a  few  of  these  to  the  class  and 
examine  them  to  find  the  tiny  seeds  that  are  scattered  as  the  plant  tumbles  over  the 
field. 

WOOLLY  BEARS.  LESSON  16. — This  is  a  good  month  to  find  out  how  some  of 
the  insects  get  ready  for  winter.  Ask  the  children  to  watch  for  caterpillars  and  bring 
them  to  school.  How  many  know  the  woolly  bears?  (They  are  the  common  caterpil- 
lars with  long,  light  tan  or  cinnamon  brown  hairs.)  Place  a  few  of  these  in  a  paste- 
board box  and  feed  them.  They  are  fond  of  the  leaves  of  sweet  clover,  smart  weed 


33 

and  beets.  See  if  the  children  can  find  how  many  feet  these  caterpillars  have.  What 
is  the  color  of  the  head?  How  does  the  caterpillar  eat?  (While  the  children  may 
not  be  able  to  catch  the  insects  in  the  act  of  eating,  by  looking  at  the  leaves  they 
will  be  able  to  determine  that  they  have  biting  mouths.) 

LESSON  17. — Some  of  the  coolly  bears  will  spin  cocoons  in  the  box.  Perhaps 
the  children  may  find  out  how  the  spinning  is  done.  (The  caterpillars  spin  a  very 
loose  covering  of  silk  \\ith  their  mouth,  and  then  complete  the  cocoon  by  shedding 
the  long  hairs  from  their  body.  After  the  caterpillars  have  spun  their  cocoons,  care- 
fully cut  open  one  of  them  to  find  what  is  on  the  inside.  (Instead  of  the  caterpillar 
you  will  find  an  object  which  we  call  the  pupa.)  What  is  the  color  of  the  pupa? 
Is  it  longer  or  shorter  than  the  caterpillar?  Can  it  move  about  or  eat1?  How  does 
it  show  that  it  is  alive?  (It  will  probably  wriggle  the  back  part  of  the  body  just 
a  little  when  it  is  disturbed.  The  pupa  will  sleep  all  winter  inside  of  the  cocoon. 
In  the  spring  it  will  change  into  a  pretty  whito  moth.  Put  the  boxes  away  where  they 
may  be  kept  safely  until  spring,  so  that  the  children  will  have  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  moths  when  they  emerge.) 

If  the  children  become  interested  in  caterpillars,  they  will  bring  in  a  number 
of  different  kinds.  Among  these  will  probably  be  found  the  Tiger  Isabella.  This 
is  the  common  black  and  brown  caterpillar.  This  one  will  not  spin  a  cocoon  and 
the  children  may  be  interested  to  know  that  it  spends  the  winter  in  the  caterpillar 
form.  It  creeps  into  some  crack  or  crevice,  under  sticks  or  boards,  or  leaves,  and 
sleeps  during  the  winter  months.  Early  in  the  spring  it  spins  the  cocoon  and  changes 
into  a  moth  in  a  short  time. 

NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  NOVEMBER. — Special  study  of  nut  trees,  including  oaks,  if 
possible  organize  a  nutting  parti) ;  collection  of  nuts.  Plant  some  in  a  box  of  sand 
out  of  doors.  What  animals  eat  nuts:1  Prices  of  different  kino's  at  store.  Different 
mays  in  vhich  nuts  are  used  as  food.  Crush  a  nut  on  a  piece  of  paper  and  note  oil 
spot,  like  butter  spot.  Make  collection  of  nuts. 

Av.lumn  activities  of  farm,  orchcrrd  and  garden,  how  products  are  exchanged. 
How  taken  to  market. 

Children  construct  out  of  paste  board  and  sand  tables,  a  farm  house,  all  other 
farm  buildings  and  surroundings.  Some  of  the  class  may  make  the  house,  others  the 
barn,  still  others  the  poultry  house,  etc. 

LESSON  PLANS— NUT  TREES.— The  purpose  of  the  study  of  nut  trees  is 
to  help  the  children  appreciate  more  keenly  the  life  and  work  of  trees  in  general  and 
the  special  value  of  nut  trees  both  for  ornamentation  and  for  food.  Begin  the  work 
by  having  the  children  name  all  the  nut  trees  they  know.  Who  has  ever  been  nut- 
ting? What  kind  of  nuts  did  you  find?  Let  the  children  tell  their  experiences  as 
an  oral  lesson  in  language. 

Choo.se  one  or  two  nut  trees  in  the  district  for  special  observation.  In  many 
districts  the  walnut  is  abundant  and  this  is  a  good  type  for  study.  Ask  the  children 
to  observe  the  tree  and  report.  Is  the  trunk  straight?  Is  the  bark  rough  or  smooth? 
Are  the  furrows  deep  or  shallow?  Are  rhey  far  apart  or  close  together?  Follow  one 
along  some  distance  to  see  whether  or  not  it  meets  another  furrow.  Do  you  think 
you  could  draw  the  bark  pattern  of  this  tree?  How  far  are  the  first  branches  from, 
the  ground?  Are  the  branches  large?  Are  they  the  same  color  as  the  trunk?  Are 
there  many  small  branches?  Where  are  they  most  numerous? 

Bring  in  a  few  twigs  for  indoor  observation.  Have  the  children  look  for  all 
the  things  that  are  to  be  found  on  a  twig.  (They  will  find  tiny  buds  for  next 
spring,  leaf  scars,  and  rings  showing  the  year's  growth.)  Discuss  the  kind  of  leaves 
that  the  walnut  tree  has.  If  the  children  do  not  know,  try  to  find  some  of  the  dry 
ieaves  under  the  trees  and  bring  these  for  observation.  Did  you  ever  see  any  of 
the  flowers  of  the  walnut?  We  shall  watch  for  these  next  spring. 

Y\"hat  is  the  use  of  walnut  trees?  The  children  should  know  at  least  that  the 
wood  is  hard  and  strong  and  a  pretty  dark  brown  in  color.  It  takes  a  good  polish 
easily,  which  means  that  it  is  a  good  kind  of  wood  to  use  for  furniture.  Years  ago 
it  was  used  largely  for  furniture.  Perhaps  some  of  the  children  may  be  able  to  tell 
of  some  ol:l  walnut  tables  or  dressers  that  their  mothers  have  at  home.  Walnut  trees 


34 

have  become  so  scarce  that  the  wood  is  now  very  expensive  and  so  people  care  more 
about  it  in  these  days  than  they  did  years  ago.  Walnut  is  also  good  for  fence  posts. 
Some  farmers  have  walnut  groves  upon  their  farms  which  they  allow  to  grow  for 
twelve  or  fifteen  years  and  then  use  the  trees  for  posts. 

Where  do  you  find  nuts  on  the  walnut  tree?  Do  they  remain  hanging  on  the 
twigs  late  in  the  fall  or  do  they  drop  to  the  ground?  Describe  a  walnut.  What 
is  the  color  and  thickness  of  the  outside  covering?  How  is  this  covering  removed? 
Did  you  ever  stain  your  fingers  in  taking  the  hull  from  a  walnut?  Crack  a  few  nuts 
to  find  the  kernel.  This  is  the  real  seed  that  will  grow  and  produce  a  new  walnut 
tree. 

If  there  are  any  butternuts  or  white  walnuts  in  the  neighborhood  make  a  com- 
parative study  of  the  butternuts  and  walnuts. 

Let  the  children  name  all  of  the  other  nut  trees  that  they  know.  Select  two 
or  three  for  special  study.  Among  the  most  interesting  are  the  hickory  and  the 
oaks.  Follow  the  outline  suggested  for  the  walnut  in  the  study  of  these  trees.  A 
collection  of  various  kinds  of  nuts  and  acorns  will  be  found  interesting  and  valuable. 
Plant  some  of  the  nuts  in  boxes  or  on  the  school  grounds.  Do  not  cover  them  deeply. 
Just  a  little  layer  of  soil  on  top.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  plant  the  nuts  in  the  fall? 
The  children  may  know  that  because  of  the  hard  shells  all  nuts  must  be  frozen 
before  they  can  germinate. 

AUTUMN  ACTIVITIES. — Spend  at  least  two  lessons  on  an  informal  discussion 
of  autumn  activities.  What  work  are  the  farmers  doing  now?  What  crops  have 
already  been  harvested?  Are  any  left  unharvested?  What  are  the  farmers  doing 
with  the  corn  that  they  are  gathering?  How  is  it  stored?  How  is  it  unloaded  into 
the  crib?  Who  has  gathered  apples  this  fall?  Where  and  how  have  they  been 
stored  for  winter  use?  What  garden  products  are  still  left  in  the  garden?  Make  a 
list  of  all  the  products  of  the  neighborhood  that  have  been  marketed.  How  have 
they  been  taken  to  market?  Who  knows  what  is  done  with  them  in  the  town?  What 
people  are  dependent  on  the  farmers  for  food?  What  things  do  the  farmers  get 
in  town  that  the  farm  does  not  produce  for  them. 

Spend  some  time  in  having  the  children  construct  the  house  as  suggested  in  the 
outline. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  DECEMBEE.— Uses  of  the  fire  about  the  home,  methods  of 
heating,  cooking.  Use  of  wood,  coal,  gas,  oil,  electricity ;  source  of  each;  dangers. 
Simple  experiments  to  show  how  wood  burns,  coal. 

The  stove,  all  the  parts,  the  draft — differences  in  weight  of  cold  air  and  warm 
air;  dampers;  chimney;  experiments  to  detect  air  currents  near  window,  door,  over 
stove  or  register.  Invert  chalk  box  or  cardboard  box,  cut  small  hole  in  bottom  near 
each  end  and  place  candle  under  one  hole  and  with  smoking  match  or  paper  discover 
ait  current  into  the  other  hole. 

The  thermometer;  how  it  works;  different  hinds — mercury  and  alcohol;  its  uses, 
learn  to  read  it,  room  temperature  and  freezing  point.  Bead  thermometer  in  differ- 
ent positions  in  the  school  room — near  the  heat  supply,  farthest  from  it,  near  the  win- 
dow, on  the  door,  near  the  ceiling,  in  the  outer  hall,  etc.  Daily  records  of  outdoor  tem- 
perature for  two  or  three  weeks.  Difference  in  sunshine  and  shade,  morning  and  noon. 
Temperature  of  the  body. 

Physiology.  Why  we  need  fresh,  air  in  our  liomes  and  at  school.  What  makes 
air  impure?'  How  can  we  get  and  keep  fresh  air  in  our  school  room?  In  our  sleep- 
ing rooms? 

LESSON  PLANS— USES  OF  FIBE,  ETC.— Discuss  the  different  uses  of  fire 
about  the  home  and  school.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  fuel  used  in  cook  stoves, 
in  heating  stoves,  in  furnaces.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  the  different  kinds  of 
fuels,  especially  of  the  different  kinds  of  coal.  Can  you  name  some  kinds  of  fuel 
that  are  not  used  in  your  neighborhood?  Why  is  wood  not  burned  as  much  as  it 
was  years  ago? 

Name  the  parts  of  a  cook  stove.  What  is  the  draft  in  front  for?  Do  you 
leave  this  open  or  closed  when  you  wish  fire  to  burn  brightly?  Where  is  the  damper? 
Do  you  put  it  up  or  down  when  you  wish  a  strong  fire?  If  the  draft  is  open  below 
and  the  damper  down,  why  does  the  fire  roar  up  the  chimney?  (It  is  enough  here 


35 

for  the  children  to  know  that  when  air  is  warm  it  spreads  out  and  becomes  lighter 
than  when  it  is  cold.  The  air  in  the  chimney  is  warm  and  light  and  the  air  on  the 
outside  of  the  stove  is  cold  and  heavy,  hence  it  rushes  in  thru  the  draft  and  pushes 
the  warm  air  upward  in  the  chimney.) 

Do  you  know  how  the  oven  is  heated?  Ask  your  mother  about  this  and  why  it 
is  that  she  keeps  the  damper  up  when  she  wishes  to  heat  the  oven. 

If  you  should  shut  out  all  of  the  air  from  a  stove  will  the  fire  burn?  Name 
some  of  the  other  uses  of  air  in  the  house  besides  this  one.  (Lamps  need  air  in 
order  that  they  may  give  us  light,  and  we  need  air  in  order  that  we  may  live  and 
do  our  work.)  When  the  air  has  been  breathed  into  our  lungs  and  then  breathed 
out  again  it  is  not  good  for  us,  neither  will  it  make  a  fire  burn  brightly.  Why  do 
we  need,  then,  to  have  our  school  room  and  our  rooms  at  home  arranged  so  that  we 
may  always  get  a  supply  of  fresh  air? 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  JANUAEY. — Physiology,  How  we  should  breathe.  What 
prevents  good  breathing?  What  happens  when  we  breathe?  What  do  you  see  in 
your  breath  on  a  cold1  morning?  Effect  of  breathing  upon  the  air.  Why  we  take 
cold.  Simple  idea  of  germs.  Danger  of  breathing  dust.  What  are  all  the  sources 
of  dirt  in  mir  homes,  in  the  schoolroom,  on  our  clothes?  How  do  we  try  to  get  rid 
of  dirt,  sweeping,  dusting,  scrubbing,  washing,  etc.  Proper  methods  of  sweeping, 
dusting,  damp  broom  and  cloth  or  oil  on  cloth:.  Vacuum  cleaner. 

LESSON  PLANS. — By  simple  experiments  help  the  children  to  find  out  what 
movements  take  place  in  their  bodies  when  they  breathe.  Place  the  hands  on  the 
chest  and  take  a  deep  breath.  Notice  how  the  breast  bone  moves  outward.  Place 
the  hands  on  the  side,  breathe  deeply  and  note  the  outward  movement  of  the  ribs. 
Watch  some  one  else  as  he  breathes  and  notice  how  the  shoulders  are  lifted  upward. 
Where  does  the  air  that  you  breathe  enter  the  body?  Discuss  proper  methods  of 
breathing.  Why  it  is  more  hygienic  to  breathe  thru  the  nostrils  than  thru  the  mouth. 
Study  the  breathing  organs  in  your  physiology.  Discuss  thoroly  what  we  mean  by 
pure  air.  The  children  should  get  the  notion  that  pure  air  means  plenty  of  oxygen 
and  air  that  is  free  from  all  kinds  of  dust.  They  should  realize  that  dust  of  various 
kinds  is  likely  to  carry  with  it  disease  germs  that  may  enter  our  bodies  thru  the 
breathing  organs. 

Name  all  the  ways  in  which  dust  may  get  into  the  air.  Discuss  the  methods  of 
getting  rid  of  dust.  The  best  methods  of  sweeping  and  cleaning. 

Eefer  to  the  books  on  physiology  for  the  other  topics  suggested  in  the  outline. 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  FEBEUAEY.— Review  all  previous  ivork  with  reference  to  the 
senses.  How  we  can  do  good  work.  How  rest  the  nerves  and  brain.  How  exercise? 
The  effect  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  upon  the  brain  and  nerves. 

Winter  birds.  Observe  food  habits  of  any  birds  found  in  the  neighborhood. 
Place  beef  suet  or  long  bones  with  a  little  meat  in  trees  and  watch  the  birds  that 
feed  there. 

Special  Study  of  English  Sparrow. — Where  it  stays,  feeding,  roosting,  nesting, 
disposition.  Why  we  do  not  like  the  English  sparrow  as  well  as  our  native  sparrows. 
Study  of  feathers  as  a  body  covering.  Use  chicken  feathers,  find  parts  of  a  feather, 
different  kinds,  how  they  grow,  etc.\  Special  study  of  pigeon. 

Physiology. — First  aid  to  the  injured.,    Bruises,  cuts,  sprains,  etc. 

LESSON  PLANS. — Eefer  to  the  books  on  physiology  for  the  topics  suggested 
in  connection  with  the  senses. 

WINT'EE  BIEDS.— Encourage  the  children  to  keep  a  watch  for  birds  during 
the  winter  months.  There  are  a  number  of  birds  that  come  to  us  from  the  far 
north  to  spend  the  winter.  There  are  others  that  stay  with  us  during  the  winter. 
Many  of  these  may  be  attracted  to  the  school  ground  or  about  the  homes  by  placing 
food  for  them  in  the  yards.  Procure  a  piece  of  beef  suet,  wrap  strong  twine  around 
it  many  times  and  fasten  it  up  in  the  fork  of  a  tree  or  suspend  it  from  a  branch. 


36 

Chick-a-dees,  nut  hatches,  downy  and  hairy  woodpeckers,  and  blue  jays  will  probably 
come  to  this  feeding  place  during  the  cold  weather.  If  the  English  sparrow  is 
abundant  in  the  neighborhood  have  the  children  make  a  special  observation  of  this 
bird.  What  it  eats.  Where  it  stays  at  night.  Whether  it  is  ever  found  carrying 
material  for  nests  during  the  winter  months.  State  some  reasons  why  we  do  not 
like  the  English  sparrow  as  well  as  our  native  birds. 

F1EST  AID  TO  THE  INJUEED.— Discuss  the  various  ways  in  which  accidents 
are  likely  to  occur  to  children.  From  some  good  physiology  find  out  how  to  treat 
a  cut,  a  burn,  or  a  sprain,  how  to  make  a  bandage  and  put  it  on,  and  various 
other  things  that  should  be  done  when  one  has  met  with  an  accident.  The  teacher 
should  realize  that  the  only  way  to  make  this  work  of  value  to  the  children  is  to 
practice  doing  these  things.  A  part  of  the  physiology  time  should  be  taken  for 
actual  practice  in  dressing  cuts,  in  knowing  how  to  carry  a  wounded  person,  in 
making  and  applying  a  bandage,  etc. 

MARCH 

MAECH. — Simple  experiments  with  seeds  and  seedlings,  using  peas,  corn,  and 
pumpkin;  grow  between  blotters  or  cloth,  and  in  sawdust,  Conditions  of  growth; 
vary  the  moisture,  light,  temperature,  etc.;  from  sprouted  peas  remove  a#  much  as 
possible  of  the  food  supply  (cotyledons)  and  compare  ivith  similar  seedlings  not  so 
treated.  Distinguish  root,  shoot,  food  supply,  seed  coat.  Plant  sweet  peas,  sun- 
flowers, tomatoes,  at  home  and  school.  Eaise  tomato  plants  to  take  home. 

Special  study  of  woodpeckers;  if  possible  identify  the  five  common  species; 
characteristics  common  to  each;  value  to  man.  Other  birds  which  search  the  tree 
framework  for  insects, — brown  creeper  and  nut  catch. 

SEEDS  AND  SEEDLINGS.  LESSON  1. — Begin  the  work  with  a  short  in- 
formal discussion  of  the  duties  and  pleasures  that  come  with  April.  What  special 
work  is  done  at  home,  in  the  house,  in  the  yard?  In  the  garden?  In  the  fields? 
What  new  games  are  played  at  school? 

Among  other  things  the  planting  of  seeds  will  be  mentioned.  Have  children 
name  all  the  seeds  that  we  plant  in  April  (radish,  lettuce,  peas,  beets,  oats, 
spring  wheat,  etc.)  Can  you  think  why  we  do  not  plant  such  seeds  as  corn,  beans,  and 
cucumbers  this  month?  Some  seeds  like  a  warm  seed  bed.  If  we  plant  these  before 
the  soil  has  become  warm  in  the  spring  they  are  likely  to  rot  instead  of  grow. 
Besides,  if  they  should  grow,  the  little  plants  are  not  hardy  enough  to  stand  the 
frosty  nights  that  April  often  brings.  Ask  each  child  to  bring  from  home  two  or 
three  seeds  of  various  kinds  that  may  be  planted  in  April.  An  interesting  chart 
may  be  arranged  in  this  connection.  Have  the  children  stick  the  seeds  in  groups 
of  two  or  three  on  a  piece  of  cardboard  and  label  neatly.  Ordinary  mucilage  may 
be  used  for  this.  This  may  be  done  as  seat  work. 

LESSON  2. — In  preparation  for  the  second  lesson  place  a  number  of  peas 
in  water  and  allow  them  to  stand  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  Each  child  should 
have  a  soaked  pea  and  a  dry  one.  Compare  the  two.  How  do  they  differ?  What 
do  you  think  has  caused  the  change?  (The  pea  has  absorbed  some  of  the  water 
and  has  become  swollen.)  Would  it  do  the  same  thing  if  it  were  placed  in  moist 
soil?  Try  it. 

Eemove  the  covering  from  the  soaked  seed.  This  is  called  the  seed-coat.  How 
many  parts  can  you  now  see  in  the  seed?  The  two  thick  chunky  pieces  are  called 
cotyledons.  Find  the  tiny  body  that  holds  the  cotyledons  together.  Let  us  try 
some  experiments  in  order  to  find  out  just  what  all  these  parts  of  the  seed  are. 

Put  some  good  soil  into  a  tin  can  or  flower  pot.  If  you  use  a  tin  can,  be  sure 
to  punch  a  hole  in  the  bottom  for  drainage.  Plant  five  peas  and  keep  well-watered. 
Place  two  soaked  seeds  on  some  moist  blotting  paper  or  a  damp  cloth.  From  two 
other  soaked  seeds  cut  away  as  much  of  the  cotyledons  as  you  can  without  injuring 
the  tiny  body  that  holds  them  together.  Place  these  beside  the  others.  Now  watch 
them  carefully  from  day  to  day  to  see  whether  they  all  sprout  and  grow. 

LESSON  3. — If  we  plant  peas  or  other  seeds  in  the  garden  we  expect  them  to 
sprout  and  grow.  Let  us  try  to  find  out  what  conditions  are  necessary  in  order  that 
they  may  do  their  work. 


37 

Experiment  1.  Place  two  or  three. soaked  seeds  on  some  moist  cloth  or  paper 
in  a  cup.  Place  the  same  number  on  dry  paper  in  another  cup.  In  another  entirely 
cover  the  seeds  with  water.  Set  the  three  c:..ps  side  by  side  in  the  room. 

Experiment  2.  Place  three  or  four  seeds  on  moist  paper  in  a  cup  and  keep  the 
cup  in  a  warm  place.  Place  three  or  four  others  in  another  cup  and  keep  in  the 
coolest  place  you  know. 

LESSON  4. — Do  you  know  any  seeds  that  we  plant  in  the  house,  and  later 
transplant  the  plants  to  the  garden?  Among  them  are  tomatoes.  Why  do  we  not 
plant  the  tomato  seeds  out  of  doors  this  month?  (Tomato  plants  are  very  tender. 
A  slight  frost  would  be  sure  to  kill  them.)  Why  then  do  we  not  wait  until  May 
and  plant  the  seeds  out  of  doors  as  we  do  the  beans  and  corn?  There  is  a  good 
reason  for  this,  too.  We  should  have  to  wait  until  the  latter  part  of  the  summer 
or  early  fall  to  get  any  tomatoes  to  eat.  So  if  we  want  tomatoes  in  the  summer 
we  must  start  the  plant  indoors  now. 

If  the  teacher  can  get  a  few  packages  of  choice  tomato  seeds  so  that  each  child 
in  the  class  may  have  at  least  two  plants  to  take  home  to  transplant  and  care  for, 
it  will  add  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  work. 

Let  the  children  help  to  decide  what  they  will  need  in  order  to  raise  some  tomato 
plants  at  school.  (They  will  need  a  small  box.  Perhaps  some  child  can  provide  this, 
some  good  soil,  and  the  seeds.) 

LESSOX  5. — Put  the  soil  into  the  box  and  sow  the  seeds,  covering  them  lightly 
with  less  than  half  an  inch  of  soil.  Watch  for  the  first  appearance  of  the  plants. 
How  long  did  it  take  the  seeds  to  sprout?  Compare  with  sweet  pea  in  this  respect. 
How  many  leaves  has  the  little  plant  ?  Watch  to  see  where  the  second  pair  of  leaves 
appear.  Are  these  leaves  the  same  shape  as  the  first  ones? 

LESSOX  6. — A  lesson  on  sweet  peas  may  well  follow  the  lesson  on  the  common 
pea.  How  many  of  the  children  plant  sweet  peas  at  home?  How  many  would  like 
to  plant  some?  Encourage  the  children  to  send  for  penny  packages  of  seeds  for 
their  home  gardens.  If  there  is  room  a  short  row  may  be  planted  on  the  school 
grounds. 

These  plants  do  well  anywhere  in  rich  mellow  soil,  and  in  plenty  of  sunshine. 
They  may  be  planted  along  a  fence  or  close  to  a  building,  or  out  in  the  open  gar- 
den. We  must  make  a  drill  at  least  six  inches  deep,  just  as  early  as  the  soil  is 
fit  to  work ;  the  earlier  the  better.  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  trench  and  cover  with  about 
two  inches  of  soil.  When  the  plants  have  grown  about  two  or  three  inches  in  height, 
fill  the  trench  almost  to  the  top  with  soil  leaving  a  slight  depression  to  catch  water. 
After  the  soil  is  thoroughly  soaked,  fill  to  the  top  with  loose  soil,  or  place  a  layer 
of  straw  on  the  top  to  hold  the  moisture. 

LESSOX  7. — It  is  now  time  to  find  out  what  our  experiments  have  to  teach  us. 

Experiment  1.  Which  of  the  seeds  have  sprouted  and  grown  best?  What  is 
your  conclusion  as  to  the  effects  of  moisture  upon  the  germination  of  seeds?  The 
seeds  that  were  covered  with  water  did  not  grow  because  the  water  shut  out  all  the 
air.  Seeds  need  air  in  order  to  live  just  as  much  as  animals  do. 

LESSOX  8. — Compare  the  seeds  that  were,  put  in  a  cold  place  with  the  ones 
that  were  kept  warm.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  size  of  the  sprouts?  Which 
favors  sprouting,  warmth  or  cold?  Xow  we  know  of  at  least  three  conditions 
necessary  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  What  are  they?  (Warmth,  moisture,  and 
air.) 

LESSOX  9. — Examine  some  seeds  that  have  sprouted  well.  Can  you  find  the 
root?  From  what  part  of  the  S£ed  did  it  grow?  Can  you  find  the  shoot;  that  is,  the 
stem  with  the  tiny  green  leaves  on  it  ?  Are  the  thick  cotyledons  still  fastened  to  the 
root  and  shoot?  Look  at  the  seeds  from  which  you  cut  Vne  cotyledons.  Have  they 
grown  as  well  as  the  others?  Can  you  think  why?  (The  cotyledons  are  little  store- 
houses of  food  upon  which  the  plant  lives  until  it  is  able  to  make  food  for  itself. 
When  we  use  peas  for  food,  we  eat  the  material  that  was  stored  up  for  the  young 
plant.) 

Dig  up  one  of  the  plants  that  is  growing  in  the  can  or  flower  pot.  Examine 
the  cotyledon  to  see  if  the  food  is  being  used  up.  At  the  end  of  a  week  dig  up  an- 
other, and  continue  this  till  all  are  removed.  Do  the  little  plants  use  up  all  of  the 
stored  food? 


38 

If  you  have  a  small  plot  in  the  school  yard  for  a  garden  have  the  children  plant 
a  few  sweet  peas. 

WOODPECKERS.  LESSON  10-15. — The  aim  of  bird  study  in  any  of  the 
grades  is  to  encourage  the  children  to  form  a  habit  of  observing  birds  that  they  may 
learn  to  know  and  love  them,  as  well  as  to  help  protect  them.  Bird  study  usually 
gives  the  best  results  when  a  few  minutes  are  devoted  to  reports  two  or  three  times 
each  week,  rather  than  an  entire  period  spent  in  a  formal  study. 

Begin  the  work  by  asking  how  many  of  the  children  know  any  of  the  wood- 
peckers. The  red-headed  woodpecker  and  the  nicker  or  yellow-hammer  are  common 
in  most  parts  of  Illinois.  The  downy,  hairy,  and  sap-sucker  are  also  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  Procure  some  colored  pictures  of  woodpeckers.  (These  may  be 
bought  at  cost  from  the  publisher  of  this  pamphlet.) 

Tell  the  children  to  watch  for  the  yellowhammer  or  flicker  and  be  ready  to  report 
the  next  day.  Note  the  size  of  the  bird.  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  a  robin?  What 
colors  can  you  see?  What  is  the  color  of  the  spot  on  the  back  of  the  head?  Look 
for  the  black  crescent  shaped  spot  on  the  breast.  Note  wrhere  the  bird  is  and  what  it 
is  doing.  When  you  are  sure  that  the  children  know  the  bird,  tell  them  you  want 
them  to  watch  the  flickers  about  their  homes  to  see  how  many  things  they  can  find  out 
about  these  birds.  Have  them  note  especially  all  the  different  places  wrhere  the  birds 
are  seen,  and  what  they  are  doing.  How  does  the  bird's  flight  differ  from  that  of  a 
robin?  What  marks  aid  in  identifying  it  when  flying?  (The  white  spot  in  front  of 
the  tail  and  the  golden  yellow  lining  of  the  wings.) 

At  the  end  of  a  week,  during  which  the  interest  has  been  kept  up  by  occasional 
reference  to  the  bird,  have  an  indoor  lesson.  This  should  be  a  free  expression  of  the 
observations  made  by  the  children.  Good  pictures  of  the  bird  may  aid  in  settling 
some  points  in  which  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  Some  points  may  well  be  left 
to  be  settled  by  further  outdoor  observations. 

In  the  discussion  of  wThat  the  children  have  seen,  new  problems  will  certainly 
arise.  For  example,  how  does  a  flicker  manage  to  walk  up  a  tree  trunk?  The  chil- 
dren will  readily  see  that  the  short,  stiff  feathers  aid  the  bird  in  climbing  and  in 
resting  on  the  sides  of  trees  and  posts.  By  means  of  pictures,  the  teacher  may  bring 
out  the  special  adaptations  of  the  toes,  two  pointing  forward  and  two  backward, 
that  enable  the  bird  to  cling  securely  to  vertical  surfaces. 

The  question  of  the  flicker's  food  will  come  up.  No  doubt  some  of  the  children 
will  report  that  they  have  seen  the  birds  feeding  while  on  the  ground.  What  were 
they  eating?  The  answer  to  this  may  or  may  not  be  found  by  observation.  Some 
child  may  be  fortunate  enough  to  find  a  flicker  sitting  at  an  anthill  eating  ants.  But 
whether  the  children  are  able  to  make  out  for  themselves  that  flickers  eat  ants  or  not, 
it  is  well  to  have  them  know  that  during  the  summer  and  fall  months  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  food  of  the  flickers  consists  of  ants. 

When  does  the  flicker  make  its  nest?  Some  of  the  children  will  have  a  chance 
to  watch  the  flickers  digging  holes  in  trees  for  their  nests.  What  tools  do  they  use 
in  chipping  out  the  wood?  Their  strong,  chisel-like  bills.  Do  both  birds  Avork  in 
making  the  nest?  Tell  the  children  that  if  they  have  very  sharp  eyes  they  can  dis- 
tinguish the  males  from  the  females  by  looking  at  the  side  of  the  throat.  The  male 
has  a  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  throat.  How  far  from  the  ground  are  the  nests 
made?  Compare  different  ones.  Watch  the  birds  caring  for  the  young.  Listen  for 
the  loud  hissing  sound  made  by  the  young  while  they  are  still  in  the  nest.  Watch 
them  come  forth  from  the  nest.  Can  they  fly  w^ell?  Few  young  birds  can  fly  farther 
than  young  flickers.  Do  the  parents  continue  to  feed  the  young  after  they  have  left 
the  nest?  This  will  be  easily  determined  since  the  young  beg  in  such  a  noisy  manner 
for  just  another  bite  that  the  children  will  be  sure  to  hear  them. 

Have  the  children  decide  whether  the  flickers  are  of  any  use  to  us.  The  fact 
that  they  eat  so  many  ants  and  other  injurious  insects  places  them  among  our  most 
beneficial  birds.  Leave  unanswered  the  problems  whether  flickers  use  the  same  nest 
year  after  year,  and  whether  they  stay  with  us  all  winter  or  go  awray  in  the  fall  as 
robins  and  bluebirds  do.  A  few  flickers  remain  here  over  winter.  They  often  ex- 
cavate holes  in  trees  or  buildings  and  remain  under  shelter  during  the  nights  and 
very  cold  days.  On  warm  days  they  sally  forth  to  feed  upon  tree  borers  and  what- 
ever edible  thing  they  can  find. 

While  a  detailed  study  is  being  made  of  the  flicker,  the  other  woodpeckers  seen 
by  the  children  should  come  in  for  a  share  of  the  discussions.  Even  in  the  third  and 
fourth  grades  something  may  be  done  with  a  simple  comparative  study  of  wood- 


39 

peckers.  The  children  will  be  able  to  point  out  a  few  characteristics  that  are  similar 
in  all  birds,  as  the  hard  bill,  short  stiff  tail  and  feet  with  two  toes  forward  and  two 
backward.  In  localities  where  the  red-headed  woodpecker  is  abundant,  it  will  be 
found  fully  as  good  for  a  detailed  study  as  the  flicker. 

COEEELATIOX  WITH  LANGUAGE. — The  experiments  and  studies  in  this 
month's  work  offer  excellent  material  for  the  language  work  suggested  in  the  Course 
of  Study  for  the  seventh  month. 

Use  good  and  well  in  the  sentences  that  describe  some  of  the  results  of  the  seed 
experiments,  such  as  "A  cool  temperature  is  not  good  for  sprouting  seeds."  "The 
dry  seeds  did  not  sprout  well, ' '  etc. 

For  the  composition,  use  any  of  the  topics  suggested  by  the  work,  as,  ' '  How  we 
found  out  what  seeds  need  to  make  them  sprout  and  grow."  "How  we  planted 
tomato  seeds. "  "  "What  we  have  found  out  about  woodpeckers. ' ' 

APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOE  APRIL  AND  MAY. — Care  of  sweet  peas  and  tomatoes..  En- 
courage home  and  school  flower  gardens.  Discuss  preparation  of  soil.  Try  to  have 
each  child  plant  a  small  garden  of  hi-s  own  at  home.  Talk  about  the  display  of  flowers 
and  vegetables  that  will  take  place  next  September.  Plant  tomatoes,  sweet  corn, 
aster,  phlox,  touch-me-not,  sunflower. 

HOUSE  BUILDING. — If  possible  follow  the  building  of  a  house  in  the  neigh- 
borhood; materials  used,  source  of  each — stone,  brick,  cement,  lumber,  nails,  hardware, 
etc.  Different  workmen  engaged — architect,  mason,  carpenter,  plumber,  tinner,  elec- 
trician, painter — or  different  processes  if  done  by  fewer  men.  Plan  of  the  house; 
identify  rooms  and  parts — joists,  studding,  rafters,  sills..  Uses  of  hardwood  and  soft- 
wood;; methods  of  "finishing  woods." 

VACATION  PLANS. — Discuss  methods  of  caring  for  sweet  peas,  cutting  flow- 
ers, saving  seed,  etc.  Similar  plans  for  tomato  and  other  plants.  Continue  observation 
of  birds  around  the  home. 

SWEET  PEAS  AND  TOMATOES.  LESSON  1.— If  sweet  peas  or  common 
peas  have  been  planted  at  school,  the  study  of  the  growing  plant  will  be  found  inter- 
esting. If  the  children  planted  seeds  at  home,  then  have  reports  from  a  study  of  the 
home  plant.  How  high  are  the  plants?  Have  some  grown  faster  than  others?  Are 
the  stems  strong  or  weak?  Can  they  stand  erect  without  supports?  (Stems  of  peas 
grow  rapidly,  but  they  cannot  stand  alone  because  they  have  taken  on  the  habit  of 
climbing.)  Have  the  children  decide  what  supports  they  may  use  for  their  sweet 
peas.  (They  may  use  strings,  sticks  from  a  brush  pile,  or  strands  of  wire.)  Do  all 
common  peas  need  supports  as  well  as  sweet  peas?  Have  the  children  look  at  the 
peas  in  the  home  garden  and  report.  (Some  of  the  early  peas  that  grow  about  a  foot 
high  are  called  dwarf  peas.  These  do  not  climb.) 

LESSON  2. — How  do  the  peas  climb?  (The  little  string-like  bodies  that  curl 
around  the  support  are  called  the  tendrils.)  How  do  the  tendrils  take  hold  of  the 
support  ?  Do  they  ail  curl  in  the  same  direction  ?  On  what  part  of  the  plant  are  the 
tendrils  situated?  How  many  can  you  find  on  one  plant?  Can  you  find  any  other 
plants  at  home  that  climb  by  means  of  tendrils  ? 

LESSON  3. — Have  the  children  recall  how  they  planted  the  tomato  seeds  and 
how  the  little  plants  started  to  grow.  How  high  are  the  plants  now?  If  they  are  two 
inches  high  they  are  ready  to  transplant  into  small  flower  pots,  berry  boxes,  or  tin 
cans.  If  the  cans  are  used  be  sure  that  a  hole  is  made  in  the  bottom  of  each  for 
drainage.  In  transplanting  be  careful  to  take  up  a  little  soil  with  the  roots.  Have 
the  can  about  two-thirds  full  of  good  rich  soil.  Hold  the  little  plant  in  the  middle 
of  the  can  with  the  roots  resting  on  the  soil.  Now  fill  the  space  around  the  roots 
with  more  soil  and  press  the  soil  closely  around  the  plant  with  your  thumbs.  Water 
and  keep  out  of  a  strong  light  for  two  days. 

LESSON  4. — Discuss  how  the  tomato  plants  should  be  set  out  in  the  garden.  This 
should  be  done  the  first  or  second  week  in  May.  They  should  be  set  in  rows  three  or 
four  feet  apart.  Use  the  same  care  in  setting  out  the  plants  in  the  garden  that  you 
did  in  transplanting  into  the  cans.  If  plants  have  been  grown  at  school,  give  each 
child  one  to  take  home  and  set  out  in  the  home  garden. 


40 

BUILDING  A  HOUSE.  LESSON  5.— Begin  the  work  by  asking  the  children 
how  many  of  them  have  ever  seen  a  house  in  process  of  building.  Perhaps  some  mem- 
bers of  the  class  have  had  a  new  home  built  recently ;  if  so,  they  will  be  able  to  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  discussion.  What  is  the  first  thing  to  do  in  building  a  house? 
(The  cellar  or  basement  is  dug.)  Who  has  seen  this  done?  (Usually  horses  are 
hitched  to  scrapers  and  the  dirt  is  scraped  up  and  hauled  off  to  one  side.)  When 
most  of  the  dirt  is  taken  out  in  this  way,  men  with  spades  shave  down  the  sides,  mak- 
ing the  dirt  walls  very  smooth  and  even.  What  is  the  next  thing  to  do?  (The 
foundation  must  be  made.) 

LESSON  6. — What  materials  are  used  in  making  the  foundation  of  a  house? 
(Tell  the  children  to  find  out  what  the  foundations  of  their  houses  at  home  are  made 
of.  Some  will  find  bricks,  some  cement  blocks,  and  some  stones.)  What  is  used  in 
the  foundation  of  the  school  house?  How  are  the  bricks  held  together?  Who  knows 
out  of  what  mortar  is  made?  (Sand  and  lime  or  cement  are  mixed  with  water  to 
make  mortar.)  What  is  a  man  called  whose  business  it  is  to  build  walls  and  chimneys 
out  of  bricks  or  stones?  (He  is  called  a  mason.) 

LESSON  7. — After  the  foundation  is  made,  who  then  carries  on  the  work  of 
building  the  house?  Where  do  we  get  the  lumber  that  the  carpenter  uses?  Talk 
about  some  of  the  different  pieces  of  lumber  that  are  used  for  various  parts  of  the 
house.  WTiat  are  the  walls  made  of?  Look  on  the  inside  of  the  school  room.  What 
can  you  see?  Look  on  the  outside  of  the  building.  How  are  the  weatherboards  put 
on?  Sometimes  these  boards  are  called  siding.  Is  there  anything  between  the  siding 
and  the  wall  on  the  inside?  (Just  under  the  siding  is  another  layer  of  boards  that 
fit  closely  together  as  the  boards  in  a  floor  do.)  Who  knows  the  name  of  this  layer? 
It  is  called  sheathing.  What  are  the  sheathing  and  the  siding  nailed  to?  Look  on 
the  outside  for  the  nail  heads.  Are  the  nails  in  rows?  How  far  apart  are  the  rows? 
The  nails  tell  you  where  the  upright  pieces  called  studding  are  placed.  Each  piece  of 
studding  is  two  by  four  inches,  and  is  placed  upon  the  sill  which  rests  upon  the  foun- 
dation. The  studding  extends  up  to  the  roof. 

LESSON  8. — Who  knows  what  is  nailed  to  the  studding  on  the  inside?  Some 
of  the  children  may  have  seen  the  lathes  that  are  put  on  to  hold  the  plaster.  What 
other  part  of  the  house  do  you  know  besides  the  foundation  and  the  walls?  (The 
roof.)  What  is  the  roof  made  of  ?  How  are  the  shingles  put  on?  Examine  a  shingle. 
Why  is  it  thicker  at  one  end  than  at  the  other?  What  are  the  shingles  nailed  to? 
They  are  nailed  to  boards  that  rest  upon  the  rafters.  If  you  have  an  attic  you  can 
see  the  rafters  extending  upward  and  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  roof.  Another 
part  of  the  house  is  the  floor.  The  pieces  to  which  the  floor  is  nailed  are  the  joists. 
You  can  see  the  joists  in  a  cellar  or  basement. 

LESSON  9. — There  are  many  more  parts  to  a  house  that  a  carpenter  must  know. 
Look  around  the  school  room  and  let  us  make  a  list  of  the  things  that  we  see.  We 
can  find  the  ceiling,  walls,  floor,  doors,  and  windows.  If  you  stand  in  an  open  door 
the  piece  directly  over  your  head  is  the  lintel  of  the  door.  The  side  pieces  that  the 
lintel  rests  upon  are  the  jambs.  The  frame  that  the  carpenter  put  all  around  the 
doors  and  windows  forms  the  facings.  The  lower  part  of  the  window  that  we  often  call 
the  sill  is  the  window  stool.  The  sill  is  the  lower  part  on  the  outside.  The  part  of 
the  window  that  holds  the  panes  of  glass  is  the  sash. 

LESSON  10. — Sum  up  the  work  by  having  the  children  name  all  the  different 
materials  that  are  used  in  making  a  house,  and  all  the  different  workmen  that  help 
to  build  it. 

VACATION  PLANS.  LESSONS  11-13.— Before  the  school  closes  a  few  sug- 
gestions may  be  made  for  some  observations  and  studies  during  the  summer  vacation. 

SWEET  PEAS. — Watch  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Are  they  slow  or  rapid 
growers?  When  do  the  first  flowers  appear?  We  must  learn  how  to  remove  the 
flowers  without  injuring  the  plants.  We  must  cut  them  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  not 
pull  them  off.  Cut  the  stems  as  long  as  possible.  It  is  very  necessary  that  you  keep 
the  flowers  cut  if  you  wish  to  have  an  abundance  of  flowers  all  summer.  The  sweet- 
pea  flower  is  a  good  one  to  study.  The  children  may  be  interested  to  know  that  it  is 
called  a  butterfly  flower.  The  two  large  petals  at  the  sides  are  called  the  wings,  the 
one  at  the  top  the  banner  or  standard,  and  the  two  that  are  grown  together  forming 
a  little  boat  are  called  the  keel.  Notice  the  pods.  See  if  you  can  find  the  part  of  the 
flower  that  makes  the  pod.  Do  you  ever  find  any  insects  on  the  flowers? 


41 

TOMATO. — Watch  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  note  when  the  first  blossoms 
appear.  What  is  the  color  of  the  tomato  flowers?  When  does  the  fruit  begin  to 
ripen  ?  Can  the  plants  stand  up  straight  when  they  are  loaded  with  fruit  ?  It  will  be 
a  good  plan  to  use  a  support  to  help  keep  the  fruit  up  in  the  light  and  air  so  it  will 
ripen  more  evenly.  How  many  tomatoes  will  one  plant  produce  ?  What  is  the  fruit 
good  for?  Think  of  all  the  different  dishes  made  from  tomatoes;  stews,  soups,  cream 
tomatoes,  salads,  scallops,  etc.  How  are  tomatoes  put  away  for  winter  use?  Our 
mothers  can  them,  or  they  are  canned  in  the  factories  and  we  may  buy  them  from 
the  grocer. 

BIRDS. — Encourage  the  children  to  watch  the  woodpeckers  and  other  birds  dur- 
ing the  summer.  Where  do  they  build  their  nests?  Do  the  mother  and  father  birds 
feed  the  young  birds  after  they  leave  the  nest  ?  How  do  the  young  birds  differ  from 
the  old  birds?  If  the  children  will  place  pans  of  water  in  the  yards  in  the  shade  of 
trees  and  shrubs  the  birds  will  come  to  drink  and  bathe. 

CORRELATION  WITH  LANGUAGE.— The  teacher  will  find  abundant  ma- 
terial in  these  nature-study  lessons  for  the  use  of  them  and  those.  Those  windows 
are  large.  Those  birds  I  saw  yesterday  are  flickers.  I  saw  them  on  the  ground,  etc. 
Compositions  may  be  written  upon,  "How  I  take  care  of  my  sweet  peas,"  "How  I 
should  build  my  house/'  etc. 


42 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  FOURTH  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  SEPTEMBER — GARDEN. — Follow  up  any  garden  worlc  started 
the  spring  before.  Discuss  work  done  in  the  garden  during  the  summer.  Special  study 
of  sweet  corn;  character  of  plant,  stalk,  leaves,  tassel,  number  of  ears.  Compare  with 
pop  corn.  Uses,  canning  factory.  Make  list  of  kinds  of  corn. 

SUNFLOWER  HEAD ;'  Identify  small  florets,  quantity  of  seed  raised  by  one 
plant,  uses  of  seeds,  for  birds,  poultry.  Uses  of  stalks  for  fuel.  Find  other  plants  of 
same  flowering  habit,  asters,  cosmos,  marigold,  thistle,  rosin  weed,  etc. 

INSECTS. — The  house  fly  as  a  pest.  Habits  of  moving,  feeding,  life  history; 
how  flies  carry  disease;  how  to  get  rid  of  them.  Children  try  different  methods  of 
killing  th&m,  traps,  fly  paper,  etc.  How  do  flies  spend  the  winter? 

TOMATO  WORM. — Food,  habits,  enemies.  Make  plans  for  Harvest  Home  ex- 
hibit. 

GAEDEN. — Discuss  the  work  done  by  the  children  in  the  garden  during  the 
spring  and  summer.  Who  have  gardens  of  their  own?  Who  will  have  some  flowers 
or  vegetables  to  display  in  the  Harvest  Home  Festival  at  the  end  of  the  month? 

SWEET  COEN. — Study  the  entire  plant.  How  high  does  sweet  corn  grow? 
Does  one  stalk  bear  more  than  one  ear?  Compare  with  field  corn  in  height  and  num- 
ber of  ears.  Study  the  ear.  Compare  with  an  ear  of  field  corn.  What  are  the  dif- 
ferences you  see?  How  does  the  grain  differ  from  that  of  field  corn?  From  pop  corn? 
Put  some  of  the  crinkled  dry  grains  into  water  and  let  them  remain  over  night.  What 
change  takes  place?  What  are  the  uses  of  sweet  corn?  Why  do  we  like  it  better 
than  field  corn?  (It  has  much  more  sugar  in  it.)  Discuss  the  canning  of  sweet 
corn.  Who  has  visited  a  canning  factory?  Tell  all  the  things  that  must  be  done  with 
the  corn  from  the  time  it  is  brought  into  the  factory  until  it  is  in  the  cans  ready  to 
ship  all  over  the  country. 

SUNFLOWEE. — Make  a  study  of  the  entire  plant.  Note  height  of  stem,  thick- 
ness, size  of  leaves.  Are  there  any  branches?  -Where  is  the  head  borne?  If  possible 
have  a  sunflower  head  in  the  class.  Have  the  children  look  at  it  carefully  and  decide 
whether  it  is  one  flower  or  many  small  flowers.  One  small  flower  is  called  a  floret. 
Look  at  it  carefully  and  find  that  each  floret  produces  one  seed.  Note  the  number 
of  seeds  in  one  head.  Which  seeds  ripen  first?  Color  of  ripe  seeds?  Discuss  the 
uses  of  the  seeds.  Who  has  seen  birds  eating  the  seeds?  Who  feeds  them  to  chick- 
ens? (Chickens  are  very  fond  of  sunflower  seeds).  Break  open  a  stalk.  What  is  on 
the  inside?  Who  has  ever  used  sunflower  stems  for  kindling?  (In  some  western 
states  where  fuel  is  scarce  sunflowers  are  raised  for  this  purpose.) 

INSECTS. — House  fly.  Is  the  house  fly  numerous  at  this  season?  Name  all  the 
places  where  the  flies  are  found.  Are  there  any  in  the  school  room?  Study  the  move- 
ments of  the  fly.  How  does  it  get  around  ?  Find  out'  how  many  feet  one  fly  has,  how 
many  wings.  Look  on  the  head  for  its  eyes.  Can  it  see  well?  (Its  eyes  are  so 
large  that  its  range  of  vision  is  very  good.)  How  do  flies  eat?  Watch  one  lapping 
up  food  with  its  tongue.  What  do  flies  eat?  Discuss  how  flies  carry  tiny  germs  of 
typhoid  fever  upon  the  hairs  of  their  feet  or  bodies.  If  a  fly  visits  material  from  a 
sick  room  in  which  some  one  has  typhoid  fever  it  may  get  some  of  the  germs  upon 
its  feet  and  then  fly  away.  It  may  come  into  our  homes  and  alight  upon  some  food 
and  perhaps  the  germs  may  fall  off.  If  we  eat  the  food  with  the  germs  upon  it  we 
may  take  the  typhoid  fever. 

Discuss  how  we  may  get  rid  of  flies.  Have  the  children  try  various  methods  of 
trapping  and  killing  these  pests. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  OCTOBEE— SPIDEES.— Habits  of  moving,  catching  prey, 
feeding,  hiding.  Webs,  how  made,  different  kinds.  Value  of  spiders  in  catching  flies. 
Different  kinds. 


43 

HOME  MAKIXG  IX SECTS. — Bees,  wasps,  ants,  where  they  wake  their  homes, 
food  value  to  man.  List  of  flowers  that  ~bees  like  to  visit.  Story  of  how  honey  is 
made,  the  comb.  Watch  for  flying  ants,  capture  some  and  l-eep  in  bottles  for  study. 
Start  ant  colony. 

BULBS. — Study  of  tulip  lull).    Pl-ant  a  tulip  bed  out  of  doors.    Forcing  bulbs. 

SPIDERS. — Give  the  children  some  observation  work  to  carry  on  outside  of 
school  to  report  next  day.  Notice  in  what  different  places  spiders  are  found,  what 
are  they  doing?  Where  webs  are  thus  found?  How  do  webs  differ  from  one  another? 
Touch  different  parts  of  a  round  web  and  note  what  happens.  Why  does  part  of  the 
web  stick  to  your  fingers?  (The  web  has  a  sticky  secretion  on  it  that  holds  flies  and 
other  insects  fast  in  the  web.) 

Look  for  different  kinds  of  webs,  round  ones,  flat  ones.  Look  for  webs  fastened 
to  grasses,  trees,  etc.  These  are  made  by  spiders  that  swing  out  upon  thread  like 
kites  and  fly  thru  the  air.  How  many  legs  has  a  spider?  What  do  spiders  eat?  (They 
feed  upon  flies  and  other  insects  and  are  to  be  considered  as  our  friends  rather  than 
our  foes.) 

HOME  MAKING  INSECTS.— Make  a  detailed  study  of  the  honey  bee.  Find 
bees  feeding  upon  the  grapes  or  other  fruit.  Put  one  into  a  jelly  glass  or  wide  mouth 
bottle.  Put  the  stopper  in  and  the  children  will  be  able  to  study  the  bee  thru  the 
glass.  Let  the  children  find  out  all  they  can  about  the  different  parts  of  the  bee. 

Discuss  the  homes  of  honey  bees.  Who  have  ever  seen  a  bee  hive?  Describe  it. 
What  flowers  do  bees  like  to  visit?  What  do  bees  gather  from  the  flowers?  (Two 
things,  nectar,  a  sweet  juice  from  which  they  make  honey,  and  pollen  from  which 
they  make  bee-bread.  Look  for  wasp  nests  and  make  a  study  of  these — especially 
mud  daubers  and  paper  wasps. 

BULB  GARDENING. — Every  rural  and  village  school  should  have  a  bulb  gar- 
den, even  though  a  small  one.  Bulbs  are  easily  grown,  and  they  give  results  before 
the  schools  close  in  the  spring,  which  is  an  additional  reason  for  growing  them.  For 
schools,  tulips  are  most  satisfactory.  Narcissus,  daffodils,  and  crocuses  are  also  good. 
As  a  rule  children  prefer  the  tulip. 

While  the  special  study  of  bulbs  is  planned  for  the  third  and  fourth  year  it  is 
suggested  that  the  entire  school  participate  in  planting  the  bulbs. 

LESSON  1. — Discuss  with  the  children  where  the  bulbs  should  be  planted.  Let 
them  help  to  decide.  If  there  is  a  fence  around  the  yard  a  bulb  garden  a  few  feet 
wide  in  front  of  the  back  or  side  fence  gives  a  good  effect.  A  small  bed  may  be 
placed  in  the  corner  of  the  yard,  or  near  the  coal  shed,  or  even  at  the  corner  of  the 
school  building.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  plant  the  bulbs  where  the 
rains  will  drip  from  the  roofs  upon  the  bed.  Spend  a  little  time  discussing  with  the 
children  the  arrangement  of  the  beds  with  regard  to  color.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  have 
several  colors  mixed  promiscuously  in  one  bed  ?  Here  is  a  chance  to  help  the  children 
gain  some  idea  of  harmony  of  color.  An  entire  red  bed,  or  a  pink  one,  or  either  with  a 
white  border  gives  a  very  pleasing  and  artistic  effect,  much  prettier  than  if  all  are 
mixed  together  in  one  bed. 

LESSON  2. — For  this  reason  the  teacher  should  have  several  different  kinds  of 
bulbs  if  possible,  and  each  child  should  have  a  bulb  in  hand.  Compare  the  bulbs  as 
to  size,  shape,  and  color.  Notice  the  papery  covering  of  the  tulip  bulb.  What  does 
this  bulb  resemble?  (The  children  will  readily  see  its  resemblance  to  the  onion.) 
If  we  should  cut  this  open  we  should  see  that  it  is  also  like  the  onion  on  the  inside. 
Have  the  children  determine  which  end  of  the  bulb  will  produce  roots  and  which 
the  shoot.  What  is  a  bulb?  (A  bulb  is  an  underground  stem  with  many  thickened 
leaves  growing  closely  around  it.)  Look  for  little  bulbs  fastened  to  the  large  one. 
These  are  called  bulblets.  If  these  bulblets  are  planted  they  will  not  produce  blos- 
soms for  two  years. 

LESSONS  3  and  4. — How  shall  we  plant  the  bulbs?  They  require  rich,  mellow 
soil.  If  you  have  a  heavy  clay  soil  let  some  of  the  older  pupils  suggest  how  it  may 
be  made  more  mellow.  (This  may  be  done  by  mixing  with  it  some  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  Nothing  is  better  than  well-rotted  material  from  around  barns.)  Let  the 
pupils  prepare  beds  for  the  bulbs.  Throw  out  the  top  soil  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight 
inches.  If  a  fertilizer  is  to  be  used  put  it  in  to  the  depth  of  two  inches  and  mix  it 
thoroughly  with  the  soil.  Now  throw  back  some  of  the  top  soil.  Set  the  bulbs  in  this 


44 

about  eight  inches  apart.  Each  child  should  plant  at  least  one  bulb.  Now  throw  in 
the  rest  of  the  soil  so  that  the  bulbs  will  be  covered  about  six  or  eight  inches.  The 
bulbs  may  be  planted  in  another  way.  Prepare  the  bed  as  before,  putting  back  all 
of  the  soil,  then  rake  it  until  it  is  in  fine  condition.  Cut  off  about  nine  inches  from  the 
upper  part  of  an  old  spade  handle  and  sharpen  this,  or  you  may  sharpen  any  round, 
hard  stick.  This  instrument  is  called  a  dibble.  With  this  you  may  make  holes  in 
the  bed.  Drop  the  bulbs  into  the  holes,  and  cover  with  the  soil.  (It  is  suggested  that 
this  work  may  be  done  on  a  Friday  afternoon.)  Bulbs  may  be  obtained  from  any 
florist.  Tulip  bulbs  may  be  purchased  as  low  as  twenty  cents  a  dozen. 

LESSON  5. — What  do  you  expect  the  bulbs  to  do  this  fall?  (The  children  may 
not  be  able  to  give  any  definite  answer  to  this.)  Ask  them  where  the  ground  is 
warmer  this  time  of  the  year,  six  inches  below  the  surface  or  near  the  top  ?  Which  part 
of  the  plant  will  be  likely  to  grow  first?  What  we  want  the  plant  to  do  is  to  make 
a  good  root  growth  this  fall.  Why  do  we  not  want  the  upper  part  of  the  bulb  to 
grow  until  spring?  (If  it  should  grow  this  fall  we  should  have  a  weak  plant  with  a 
very  small  flower.)  We  want  the  roots  to  get  a  good  start  this  fall  for  only  bulbs 
with  good  roots  will  produce  beautiful  flowers  next  spring. 

LESSON  6. — Do  we  need  to  take  any  care  of  our  bulb  bed  this  fall?  We  must 
do  one  more  thing.  When  the  top  layer  of  soil  is  frozen -hard  we  must  cover  our 
bulb  bed.  What  shall  we  use  for  the  covering?  Let  the  children  suggest  various 
things.  (Straw,  leaves,  or  corn  stalks  may  be  used  for  this.)  The  covering  should 
be  from  four  to  six  inches  deep.  Why  do  we  do  this?  (It  is  to  keep  the  temperature 
even  so  that  the  ground  will  not  thaw  out  on  a  warm  day  in  the  winter  and  then 
freeze  again.  In  the  early  spring  will  the  ground  under  the  straw  thaw  out  as  early 
as  the  uncovered  soil?  Will  this  keep  the  plants  from  starting  to  grow  early  in  the 
spring  if  the  weather  is  very  warm?  This  is  just  what  we  want.  If  the  bulb  beds 
were  left  uncovered  the  hot  days  would  start  the  plants  to  growing  so  rapidly  that 
they  would  probably  be  dwarfed  by  the  later  frosts. 

LESSON  7. — There  is  another  method  of  planting  bulbs  that  may  be  practiced  in 
any  school.  This  is  the  forcing  of  bulbs  for  Avinter  blooming  in  doors.  Any  kind  of 
bulbs  that  are  planted  out  of  doors  serve  equally  well  for  forcing.  Some  of  the  best 
are  tulips  and  hyacinths.  The  bulbs  used  for  forcing,  however,  must  be  of  a  larger 
and  better  quality,  hence  they  are  a  little  more  expensive  than  those  used  for  outside 
bedding.  Good  garden  soil  will  do  for  forcing.  A  little  sand  and  good  fertilizer 
may  be  mixed  with  the  soil.  Have  the  children  bring  flower  pots  or  tin  cans  in  which 
to  place  the  bulbs.  Be  sure  to  place  drains  in  the  bottom  of  pots  or  cans.  Fill  the 
pot  a  little  over  half  full  of  soil  then  set  in  the  bulb.  Now  put  in  more  soil  till  the 
top  of  the  bub  is  just  below  the  surface.  If  you  have  a  large  pot  or  tin  pail  sev- 
eral bulbs  may  be  planted  together.  After  planting,  water  until  you  are  certain  that 
all  the  soil  is  thoroughly  moistened. 

LESSONS  8  and  9.— What  do  we  want  these  bulbs  to  do  first?  Just  what  we 
wish  them  to  do  in  the  beds  out  of  doors — grow  roots.  In  order  to  do  this  we  must 
put  them  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  We  call  this  forcing  the  roots.  We  may  place  the 
pots  in  a  cool  cellar  and  cover  them  up  with  a  heavy  box  or  other  object.  They  may 
be  placed  in  a  shallow  hole  in  the  ground  and  covered  with  three  or  four  inches  of 
soil  or  ashes,  or  they  may  be  set  on  the  ground  along  the  north  side  of  the  coal  shed 
or  other  buildings  and  covered  up  with  soil  or  ashes.  They  should  be  left  in  the  cool, 
dark  place  at  least  six  weeks.  They  may  be  left  much  longer  and  brought  in  one  or 
two  at  a  time  as  desired.  Encourage  the  children  to  start  bulbs  at  home  using  the 
cellar  in  which  to  keep  the  pots.  (Although  the  lesson  in  connection  with  bringing  in 
the  bulbs  must  come  many  weeks  later,  we  shall  continue  the  suggestions  here).  When 
the  pots  are  brought  in  it  may  be  well  to  remove  one  bulb  from  the  soil  so  that  the 
children  may  see  just  what  has  taken  place.  From  what  point  do  the  roots  start? 
Are  there  many  roots?  How  long  are  they?  Has  the  shoot  started  to  grow?  What 
color  is  it?  Could  the  roots  and  shoot  grow  without  food?  Where  do  they  get  the 
food  to  live  upon?  A  little  discussion  will  bring  out  the  fact  that  the  food  was  stored 
up  in  the  thick  bulb  and  was  used  for  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

When  first  brought  in  the  pots  should  be  kept  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  room 
and  covered  from  intense  light.  If  the  school  room  has  an  entry  or  hall  that  is  not 
kept  as  warm  as  the  main  room  this  will  be  a  good  place  in  which  to  keep  the  plant 
for  a  few  days.  After  that  bring  them  into  the  room  where  they  may  have  plenty  of 


45 

light  and  heat  and  where  the  development  of  the  leaves  and  flowers  may  be  watched. 
There  is  another  way  in  which  bulbs  may  be  grown  in  the  schoolroom  with  less 
trouble.  Procure  a  glass  dish,  rather  wide.  Place  a  number  of  small  stones  in  this 
and  fill  with  water.  Place  a  bulb  of  the  Chinese  Sacred  Lily  or  paper  white  Nar- 
cissus  among  the  stones,  supporting  it  with  the  bits  of  rock  and  pebbles.  The  bulbs 
will  develop  and  open  up  their  beautiful  blossoms  in  about  six  weeks.  (It  is  better 
not  to  keep  the  bulbs  in  a  strong  light  or  heat  for  the  first  week  or  two.) 

NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  NOVEMBER. — Wild  mammals  of  Illinois;  habitat,  habits, 
foods,  methods  of  trapping,  uses  and  values  of  furs;  methods  of  exterminating  harm- 
ful mammals;  distinguish  gnawers  and  flesh-eaters;  government  experiments  in,  breed- 
ing fox,  deer,  etc. 

Barnyard  fowls;  kinds,  habits,  uses  and  values  of  each.  Special  study  of  the  tur- 
key, in  connection  with  Thanksgiving;  origin  of  domesticated  form;  peculiar  traits, 
care,  Thanksgiving  market. 

WILD  MAMMALS. — LESSON  10. — Today  we  are  going  to  talk  about  wild 
mammals  of  Illinois.  Who  knows  what  we  mean  by  wild  mammals?  (They  are 
animals  that  are  usually  called  wild  animals.  All  mammals  that  we  know  have  four 
feet,  and  are  covered  with  hair,  fur,  or  wool).  Name  some  of  the  mammals  that  we 
have  about  our  homes.  The  children  will,  of  course,  name  most  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals as  the  horse,  cow,  etc.  Have  any  of  you  ever  seen  any  wild  mammals  in  this 
part  of  Illinois?  (The  children  should  name  at  least  the  rabbit,  squirrel,  ground 
squirrel,  gopher,  mink,  skunk.  An  informal  discussion  should  follow  in  which 
the  children  may  tell  something  about  each  of  these  little  animals.) 

LESSON  11. — Of  all  the  wild  mammals  which  one  is  most  common  in  your  dis- 
trict ?  We  shall  study  the  rabbit  as  a  type  of  these  little  animals.  Who  has  seen 
rabbits  this  fall  anywhere  in  the  neighborhood?  Encourage  the  children  to  watch  for 
rabbits  and  find  out  more  about  their  habits.  Where  do  rabbits  live?  The  children 
may  be  ready  to  name  the  various  places  in  which  they  have  seen  these  little  animals. 
Do  rabbits  move  about  much  during  the  day  time?  When  a  dog  is  chasing  a  rabbit 
what  does  it  try  to  do  ?  Who  has  seen  it  trying  to  seek  a  place  of  shelter ;  such  as 
a  brush  pile,  corn  crib,  shed  etc  ?  Has  any  one  ever  seen  a  rabbit  in  a  burrow  in  the 
ground?  (Years  ago  probably  most  of  the  rabbits  burrowed  in  the  ground,  now  they 
find  other  places  in  which  to  hide.  Sometimes  many  rabbits  live  together  in  one  bur- 
row. Each  may  have  its  own  separate  opening  into  the  burrow  but  the  underground 
homes  are  all  united.)  What  kind  of  a  covering  has  the  rabbit?  What  is  the  color 
of  the  fur?  Is  it  the  same  color  on  the  lack  and  under  part?  Is  the  fur  long  or 
short  ?  How  can  you  identify  a  rabbit  when  it  is  running  at  some  distance  from  you  f 
(The  white  tail.)  What  kind  of  ears  has  the  rabbit?  Did  you  ever  notice  a  rab- 
bit 's  foot  ?  Which  do  you  think  it  resembles  more,  the  foot  of  a  dog  or  a  cat  f  Do 
you  know  whether  the  front  and  hind  legs  are  the  same  length?  What  kind  of  a 
track  does  a  rabbit  make  in  the  snow?  If  the  children  cannot  answer  this  leave  it  as 
a  problem  to  be  settled  later  in  the  winter  by  actual  observation. 

LESSON  12. — What  do  rabbits  eat?  Let  the  children  name  various  things  they 
have  seen  rabbits  eating.  Who  has  ever  had  a  pet  rabbit  ?  Upon  what  was  it  fed  ? 
What  do  rabbits  feed  upon  in  the  winter  time  when  the  grass  and  clover  are  dead? 
(Many  rabbits  are  forced  to  eat  the  bark  of  young  trees  and  shrubs  during  the  win- 
ter months.  They  will  eat  berries  if  they  can  find  them,  and  sometimes  under  the 
brown  grass  they  find  some  green  leaves  of  clover  or  other  plants.)  Who  has  ever 
seen  any  young  rabbits?  Where  were  they?  How  does  the  mother  rabbit  prepare  a 
nice  warm  bed  for  her  young?  (Some  of  the  children  may  have  been  fortunate  enough 
to  find  a  rabbit 's  nest  and  may  be  able  to  tell  that  it  was  lined  with  leaves  and  soft 
hair.  This  hair  was  taken  from  the  mother  's  own  body.  Do  rabbits  have  any  enemies  ? 
The  children  will,  of  course,  name  the  dog  and  cat,  the  hawk  and  owl,  fox,  mink  and 
weasel.  Perhaps  the  most  important  enemy  is  man.)  Is  the  rabbit  of  any  use  to 
man  ?  Many  people  use  the  meat  of  the  rabbit  for  food  during  the  winter  months. 

Do  rabbits  have  any  way  of  defending  themselves  against  their  enemies?  Are 
they  rapid  runners?  Did  you  ever  notice  how  a  rabbit  dodges  or  runs  in  a  zigzag 
fashion  often  getting  out  of  the  way  of  a  dog  that  is  chasing  it?  Another  way  in 


46 

which  rabbits  protect  themselves  is  by  means  of  their  color.  They  resemble  closely 
the  dead  grass  or  brown  soil.  They  often  crouch  down  keeping  perfectly  quiet  and  look- 
ing so  much  like  a  piece  of  clod  or  a  xclump  of  grass  that  their  enemies  may  pass  them 
by  without  seeing  them. 

LESSON  13. — In  a  locality  where  tree  squirrels  are  abundant,  they  may  be 
used  instead  of  the  rabbit  for  special  study.  The  same  questions  and  topics  may  be 
used,  modifying  them  of  course,  to  fit  the  squirrel.  In  any  locality  a  comparative 
lesson  between  the  squirrel  and  rabbit  may  be  worth  while,  noting  the  differences  in 
their  habits,  their  homes,  what  they  eat,  and  how  they  move  about. 

LESSON  14. — How  many  children  know  the  little  striped  squirrel?  (This 
is  sometimes  incorrectly  called  a  gopher.  The  true  gopher  is  a  larger  animal  and 
does  not  have  stripes.)  Where  does  the  ground  squirrel  live?  Most  of  the  boys 
probably  have,  seen  a  burrow  of  the  ground  squirrel  and  have  poured  water  down 
the  hole  in  order  to  ' l  drown  out ' '  the  squirrel.  The  burrow  usually  descends  almost 
straight  downward  for  two  or  three  feet  and  then  runs  out  horizontally  sometimes  a 
number  of  feet.  What  does  the  ground  squirrel  eat?  (It  feeds  upon  grains,  berries, 
and  leaves  of  various  plants.  It  sometimes  is  quite  destructive  to  corn  crops  because 
it  digs  up  the  grains  after  they  are  planted  and  eats  them  or  carries  them  off  to  its 
burrow.  Sometimes  the  ground  squirrel  gathers  great  numbers  of  half  ripe  straw- 
berries, collects  them  into  little  piles,  eats  a  few  and  leaves  the  rest.)  How  does  a 
ground  squirrel  act  when  it  is  frightened?  Did  you  ever  see  one  stand  up  on  its  hind 
legs,  stiffen  and  remain  perfectly  still,  so  still  that  it  looks  like  a  small  stick  or  bit 
of  brown  grass?  (It  often  remains  in  that  position  a  number  of  minutes  until  its 
enemy  has  disappeared  or  comes  so  near  that  it  is  forced  to  run.) 

LESSON  15. — WTiat  kind  of  teeth  has  the  ground  squirrel?  The  children  may 
have  observed  the  teeth  of  this  little  animal  or  of  other  squirrels  and  have  noticed 
that  the  front  teeth  are  very  long  and  sharp  almost  like  small  chisels.  Can  you  think 
of  other  animals  that  have  the  same  kind  of  teeth?  The  children  will  be  almost  cer- 
tain to  name  rats  and  mice,  minks  and  others.  All  these  animals  are  known  as 
gnawers  because  they  have  sharp,  gnawing  teeth.  Let  the  children  name  various  ways 
in  which  these  sharp,  gnawing  teeth  serve  the  little  animals. 

Besides  the  gnawers  we  have  a  few  other  wild  mammals  in  Illinois.  Can  any  one 
think  what  they  are?  (In  some  localities  there  are  still  a  few  foxes  and  stray  wolves 
and  a  few  raccoons.)  Years  ago  when  our  fathers  and  grandfathers  settled  in  Illinois 
these  animals  were  very  common.  Sometimes  large  packs  of  wolves  came  near  the 
pioneer's  home,  barking  something  as  dogs  bark.  Sometimes  foxes  came  to  the  poul- 
try yard  and  carried  off  some  of  the  chickens  and  more  often  than  now  minks  and 
weasels  made  raids  upon  the  poultry  yards  destroying  many  of  the  chickens  and  other 
poultry  in  a  single  night.  Why  do  we  not  have  as  many  of  these  animals  with  us  now? 
Let  the  children  think  of  the  conditions  that  have  helped  to  lessen  the  numbers  of  these 
wild  animals.  Among  other  things  the  breaking  up  of  swamps  and  the  cutting  down  of 
trees  have  left  no  places  for  them  to  build  their  homes  and  rear  their  young.  Then 
in  the  early  years  many  of  these  animals  were  killed  either  for  food  or  for  the  fur 
or  simply  because  they  annoyed  the  settlers  so  that  in  some  places  they  were  almost 
exterminated. 

LESSON  16. — Who  can  think  of  some  uses  made  of  some  of  these  wild  animals? 
For  this  lesson  it  will  be  worth  while  to  have  a  number  of  pieces  of  fur  of  various 
kinds  in  the  class.  Let  the  children  examine  the  fur  noting  the  softness  of  the  hair. 
Are  the  hairs  of  the  same  length?  Same  color?  What  uses  are  made  of  the  fur  of 
animals?  The  children  will  name  the  making  of  hats  and  caps,  collars,  capes;  etc. 

BAENYAED  FOWLS.— LESSON  17.— Let  the  children  name  all  the  barnyard 
fowls  they  have  at  home.  Let  some  one  pass  to  the  board  and  write  the  list  as  the 
children  name  them.  What  is  the  purpose  of  raising  the  different  fowls?  How  many 
have  turkeys?  Who  can  think  of  a  good  reason  for  studying  the  turkey  in  Novem- 
ber? Have  the  children  recall  the  story  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  the  first  Thanks- 
giving when  the  wild  turkeys  of  New  England  were  served  at  the  first  Thanksgiving 
feast.  How  do  turkeys  compare  with  chickens  as  to  size?  What  is  the  color  of  the 
turkey?  Who  has  any  white  or  buff  turkeys?  How  many  have  bronze  turkeys?  How 
does  the  gobbler  differ  from  the  turkey  hen  in  appearance?  What  do  turkeys  eat? 
Where  do  they  roost?  How  many  have  ever  noticed  that  they  prefer  to  roost  high  lip 
in  trees  or  on  tops  of  buildings?  Where  do  the  mother  turkeys  like  to 


47 

take  the  young  during  the  summer  months?  Can  you  think  why  turkeys  are  more 
wild  than  chickens  or  other  domestic  fowls?  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  not  been  domesticated  very  long.  All  our  turkeys  are  descended  from  the 
wild  turkeys  of  America.  The  early  explorers  took  the  wild  turkeys  into  Europe.  They 
were  domesticated  there  and  some  of  the  tame  ones  were  brought  back  to  America. 
But  even  here  in  Illinois  the  early  settlers  found  many  wild  turkeys.  They  are  now 
probably  all  gone.  Let  the  children  tell  why  they  have  disappeared.  Our  beautiful 
bronze  turkey  is  very  closely  related  to  the  wild  turkeys  of  Illinois. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER. — The  human  teeth,  anticipated  in  study  of  mam- 
mals;  kinds,  structure,  care;  longitudinal  section  of  tooth  prepared  on  grindstone,  to 
show  pulp  cavity;  temporary  and  permanent  teeth;  the  worlc  of  the  dentist;  effect  of 
bad  teeth  upon  health. 

Since  the  work  for  this  month  is  along  lines  of  hygiene  and  physiology  we 
shall  make  no  attempt  to  write  out  lessons  in  detail.  In  -every  school  the  teacher 
and  perhaps  the  pupils  have  textbooks  in  physiology.  These  may  be  used  for  ref- 
erence in  this  work.  The  chief  purpose  of  this  study  should  be  to  encourage  the  chil- 
dren to  observe  the  proper  rules  and  activities  that  lead  to  good  health.  Hygiene  and 
physiology  are  taught  to  the  lower  grade  children,  not  that  the  children  may  learn 
some  facts  about  their  bodies,  but  that  they  may  learn  how  to  care  for  their  bodies  to 
the  end  that  they  may  be  strong,  healthy  boys  and  girls. 

The  study  of  wild  mammals  in  November  gives  a  foundation  for  the  discussion 
of  teeth  in  December.  Review  the  kinds  of  teeth  that  we  studied  in  connection  with 
gnawers  and  carnivorous  animals.  Tell  the  children  to  observe  their  own  teeth  at 
home  in  their  mirrors  and  to  find  out  exactly  how  many  they  have  in  each  jaw.  Note 
whether  they  are  all  the  same  shape  and  size.  Consult  the  physiologies  to  get  the 
names  of  the  different  kinds  of  teeth.  To  study  the  structure  of  a  tooth  the  teacher 
should  get  a  few  teeth  from  her  dentist.  (These  should  be  thoroughly  sterilized  be- 
fore they  are  given  to  the  children  for  study.)  If  some  of  the  pupils  have  a  grind- 
stone at  home  have  them  grind  off  the  entire  side  of  two  or  three  teeth.  The  children 
will  then  be  able  to  find  all  parts  of  the  teeth  and  how  these  compare  with  each  other 
in  hardness,  etc.  Here  again,  consult  the  physiology  to  get  the  names  of  the  different 
parts. 

Who  has  had  the  toothache?  Why  does  a  tooth  ache?  Examine  some  of  the 
teeth  that  show  cavities.  What  is  in  the  center  or  pulp  of  the  tooth  that  causes  pain? 

Spend  some  time  in  studying  how  to  care  for  the  teeth.  Encourage  the  children 
to  examine  their  teeth  to  see  whether  or  not  any  of  them  are  beginning  to  show  de- 
cay. Sometimes  partially  decayed  food  settles  close  to  the  gums  at  the  base  of  the 
teeth  and  causes  a  gum  disease.  This  is  quite  common  even  among  children.  How 
shall  we  help  to  keep  our  teeth  from  decaying?  How  should  teeth  be  cleaned?  How 
often?  Encourage  children  to  use  tooth  brushes.  They  should  be  used  after  each 
meal  and  always  before  going  to  bed  at  night.  All  particles  of  food  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  teeth.  These  ferment  and  are  likely  to  cause  decay.  Decaying  teeth 
cause  bad  breath,  form  a  lodging  place  for  germs  of  many  diseases,  prevent  the 
proper  chewing  of  food  and  thus  cause  indigestion.  Children  with  poor  teeth  are 
likely  not  to  be  as  healthy  as  those  with  well  cared  for  teeth. 

What  is  the  work  of  the  dentist?  Some  people  think  a  dentist's  only  business 
is  to  extract  aching  teeth.  His  chief  work,  however,  should  be  to  help  care  for  the 
teeth  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  none  to  pull.  Every  one  should  consult  a  dentist 
at  least  once  a  year  and  have  him  examine  the  teeth,  clean  them  if  necessary,  and  fill 
small  cavities  that  may  be  just  starting.  In  every  way  possible  impress  upon  the  chil- 
dren that  they  cannot  have  strong,  well  bodies  and  at  the  same  time  a  number  of  de- 
caying teeth  in  their  mouths. 

Discuss  the  use  of  teeth.  Why  should  food  be  chewed?  If  the  teacher  and  chil- 
dren bring  lunches  to  school  the  teacher  has  an  excellent  opportunity  to  help  the 
children  form  good  habits  of  eating.  Let  the  lunch  time  be  a  pleasant  social  hour 
in  which  all  sit  down  together  and  eat  their  lunches.  Simple  lessons  may  be  given  in 
a  tactful  way  that  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  children  in  forming  proper 
habits  of  eating.  Occasionally  it  might  be  worth  while  to  have  some  of  the  children 
serve  the  others.  Discourage  the  habit  that  so  many  country  children  have  of  eating 
their  lunches  a  piece  at  a  time  while  they  are  running  and  playing. 


48 
JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOR  JANUARY. — Evergreen  trees;  identification  of  different  Tcinds; 
habits  of  growth;  shedding  of  leaves;  cones;  seeds;  uses  of  each  kind. 

Muscles;  uses;  movements;  simple  survey  of  structure;  fibers;  connective  tissue. 

LESSON  1. — Trees.  Let  the  first  lesson  be  a  discussion  of  trees  that  have  dropped 
their  leaves.  Look  at  the  trees  in  the  schoolyard  and  at  home.  Can  you  see  the  real 
forms  of  the  trees  now  better  than  before  the  leaves  were  gone?  Have  they  many 
twigs?  Look  at  several  different  kinds  of  trees  and  compare  them  in  this  respect.  Is 
the  bark  of  the  different  trees  the  same  color?  Observe  the  trees  of  the  same  kind  to 
see  if  they  are  similar  in  branching,  in  kinds  of  twigs,  and  color  of  the  bark.  Look 
at  these  leafless  trees  until  you  see  how  beautiful  they  are  Avith  their  smooth  branches 
and  graceful  twigs  against  the  winter  sky.  Can  you  find  any  buds  on  the  twigs  ready 
for  the  spring  opening? 

LESSON  2. — Evergreens.  Choose  for  study  any  evergreen  in  the  neighborhood. 
There  are  several  different  kinds  of  evergreens  that  may  be  found  in  any  neighbor- 
hood in  Illinois.  In  some  places  you  will  find  different  kinds  of  pines.  The  pines  are 
evergreens  that  have  long  needles.  There  are  three  kinds  that  you  are  likely  to  find. 
The  white  pine  has  five  long  slender  needles  clustered  together  in  a  short  sheath.  The 
Scotch  pine  has  two  stiff  needles  in  a  cluster.  The  Austrian  pine,  also,  has  two  needles 
but  they  are  very  much  longer  and  stiffer  than  those  of  the  Scotch  pine.  Usually  the 
needles  of  this  pine  are  two  to  four  inches  in  length.  You  can  distinguish  the  Scotch 
pine  from  the  Austrian  by  the  color  of  the  bark.  The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  the 
branches  are  yellowish  red.  The  Austrian  is  dark  gray  all  the  way  up. 

In  some  places  you  will  find  the  Norway  spruce.  The  needles  of  this  tree  are 
short — not  more  than  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  stiff  and  sharp  pointed  and  are 
arranged  singly  on  the  twig.  They  are  found  scattered  on  all  parts  of  the  twig,  upper 
and  lower  part  as  well  as  the  sides. 

The  hemlock  looks  something  like  the  spruce.  The  needles  are  about  the  same 
length  but  they  are  arranged  regularly  on  two  sides  of  the  twig,  making  the  twig 
appear  flat  on  the  top.  The  under  sides  of  the  needles  are  white. 

The  balsam  fir  is  another  short  needled  evergreen.  Its  needles  are  arranged 
somewhat  as  they  are  on  the  Norway  spruce,  but  the  twigs  are  somewhat  flatter,  the 
needles  are  silvery  on  the  under  side,  while  the  spruce  leaves  are  green  on  all  sides. 
If  you  have  difficulty  in  determining  by  the  leaves  whether  the  tree  is  a  fir  or  a 
spruce  look  at  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  If  it  is  a  fir  you  will  find  scattered  all  over  the 
trunk  good  sized  blisters.  Press  on  one  of  these  blisters  hard  enough  to  break  the 
skin  and  drops  of  resin  will  come  out.  The  fir  is  the  only  one  of  our  evergreen 
trees  that  has  resin  blisters. 

Another  evergreen  that  is  very  common  in  n^any  parts  of  Illinois  is  the  arbor 
vitae.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  white  cedar.  This  tree  does  not  have  needles 
at  all,  but  flat  scale  like  leaves  that  overlap  each  other  forming  a  flat  twig. 

One  more  tree  may  be  found  and  that  is  the  red  cedar.  Here  also  you  will 
find  the  scale  like  leaves  but  they  are  stiff  and  pointed  and  more  like  awls  than 
those  of  the  arbor  vitae.  The  red  cedar  belongs  to  the  juniper  group  of  evergreens, 

Have  the  children  try  to  identify  the  different  evergreen  trees  that  they  may 
find  in  the  district.  Have  them  look  at  the  trees  to  notice  the  habit  of  branching. 
Can  you  trace  the  main  stem  of  the  tree  from  the  foot  to  the  top?  Is  there  any 
regularity  in  the  method  of  branching?  Stand  under  the  tree  close  to  the  trunk  and 
look  up.  Are  there  many  small  branches  or  leaves  near  the  trunk? 

LESSON  3. — For  this  lesson  the  children  should  have  in  the  schoolroom  a  few- 
twigs  of  the  tree  that  you  are  to  study  as  a  type.  Let  us  suppose  it  is  the  white 
pine.  Look  at  the  leaves.  What  shape  are  they?  How  long  are  they?  Do  they 
vary  in  length  on  different  parts  of  the  twig?  Are  they  arranged  singly  or  in 
clusters?  How  many  in  one  cluster?  How  are  the  clusters  fastened  together?  (Note 
the  little  sheath  that  grows  around  the  base  of  the  cluster  of  needles.  In  the 
white  pine  you  always  find  five  needles  in  the  cluster.)  Look  carefully  at  your  twig 
to  determine  how  many  years'  growth  it  represents.  (You  can  tell  this  by  a  slight 
joint  in  the  twig.  In  most  of  the  pines  you  will  find  branches  starting  out  at  each 
years'  growth.)  How  many  inches  did  the  twigs  grow  last  year?  Does  the  growth 
vary  from  year  to  year? 

LESSONS  4  AND  5. — Do  you  find  leaves  on  last  year's  growth?  On  the  part 
that  is  two  years  old?  On  the  three-year-old  twig?  Are  the  leaves  as  numerous  on 


49 

the  two-year-old  twig  as  they  are  on  the  one-year-old?  Are  there  any  leaves  on  the 
four-year-old  portion  of  the  branch?  (You  rarely  find  leaves  on  the  pines  that  are 
four  years  old.) 

Do  the  evergreens  shed  their  leaves?  Look  at  the  old  portions  of  the  twigs  for 
scars  showing  where  the  leaves  have  fallen.  Do  you  find  any  leaves  that  are  brown 
and  dead  still  clinging  to  the  twigs?  How  do  these  trees  differ  from  the  deciduous 
trees  in  the  method  of  dropping  their  leaves?  (By  deciduous  trees  we  mean  trees 
such  as  the  elms  and  maples  that  drop  their  leaves  each  year.  The  main  differ- 
ence between  the  evergreens  and  the  other  trees  is  that  they  retain  their  leaves 
longer  and  instead  of  dropping  them  all  at  once  drop  them  a  few  at  a  time.)  Look 
on  the  ground  under  the  evergreen  trees.  Do  you  find  any  evidence  that  these  trees 
drop  their  leaves?  Watch  for  the  dropping  of  the  leaves  this  winter.  You  will 
often  find  many  of  them  flying  over  the  snow  after  a  heavy  snow  storm. 

LESSON  6. — Cones  and  seeds. — For  this  lesson  have  some  twigs  in  the  class 
with  cones  on.  Also  some  of  the  old  cones  that  have  been  picked  up  from  the 
ground.  Do  you  find  cones  of  different  sizes  on  the  twigs  ?  Where  are  the  cones 
attached  to  the  twigs?  (You  may  find  some  very  small  ones  near  the  end  of  last 
year's  growth,  larger  ones  on  the  two-year-old  twigs.)  What  is  the  shape  of  the 
cone?  How  long  is  it?  Do  the  old  cones  of  the  same  tree  vary  in  length?  Are 
the  scales  large  or  small?  Are  they  close  together  or  rather  loose?  Look  carefully 
at  the  base  of  the  scales  for  some  seeds  that  may  still  be  left  in  the  cones.  How 
large  are  the  seeds?  Have  they  any  special  adaptation  for  getting  away  from  the 
parent  tree?  (If  the  cones  are  not  too  old  you  probably  can  find  a  few  of  the 
winged  seeds  left  in  the  scales  near  the  base  of  the  cone.) 

The  small  cone  that  you  find  near  the  end  of  the  twig  was  formed  last  spring. 
It  will  grow  and  produce  seeds  next  year.  So  you  see  it  takes  the  white  pine  two 
years  to  mature  its  cones  and  seeds.  This  is  true  also  of  the  other  pines,  the 
Austrian  and  Scotch.  Perhaps  you  may  find  some  cones  of  these  trees  that  have 
not  yet  shed  their  seeds.  The  scales  of  these  are  tightly  closed.  If  you  find  some 
lay  them  up  in  a  dry  place  in  the  schoolroom  or  at  home  and  you  may  have  the 
pleasure  of  hearing  the  scales  snap  as  they  open  and  throw  out  the  seeds. 

LESSOX  7. — If  you  have  studied  the  white  pine  as  a  type  then  give  one  or 
two  lessons  to  a  comparative  study  of  the  other  pines  if  there  are  any  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Note  the  differences  and  resemblances  till  you  are  certain  you  can  tell  the 
different  kinds  apart  wherever  you  see  them. 

LESSONS  8  AND  9. — Choose  one  of  the  short  needled  evergreens,  either  the 
spruce,  fir,  or  hemlock  for  a  type  study  as  you  did  the  pine.  Study  the  arrangement 
of  the  leaves;  their  length.  How  many  sides  has  each  needle?  Find  the  age  of 
the  oldest  leaves  by  making  out  the  year 's  growth  as  you  did  for  the  pine.  You 
will  find  that  some  of  the  leaves  on  the  Norway  spruce  are  seven  or  eight  years  old. 
The  spruces  retain  their  leaves  much  longer  than  the  pines.  Study  the  cones,  if 
you  can  find  any,  and  compare  them  with  those  of  the  pine  as  to  shape  and  size. 
The  cones  of  the  Norway  spruce  are  reddish  brown,  several  inches  long,  very  shiny 
and  pretty.  Compare  the  hemlock  and  fir  with  the  spruce. 

LESSONS  1C  AND  11. — Have  one  lesson  on  the  arbor  vitae.  Who  has  seen 
hedges  made  of  this  evergreen?  They  are  used  in  some  places  very  largely  for 
hedges  around  gardens  and  yards  and  are  very  pretty  if  kept  trimmed  properly. 
There  are  many  different  varieties  of  arbor  vitae.  Some  of  them  are  low  shrubs 
but  others  grow  into  most  magnificent  trees.  Notice  the  habit  of  branching.  Find 
the  oldest  leaves.  You  may  find  a  few  that  are  three  or  four  years  old,  but  most 
of  the  fresh  green  ones  you  will  find  on  the  one-year  and  two-year  twigs.  The 
cones  are  so  tiny  you  will  need  to  look  closely  to  find  them. 

If  there  are  red  cedars  in  the  district  compare  these  with  the  arbor  vitae. 
Some  red  cedars  may  be  found  growing  wild  on  rocky  bluffs  along  some  of  the 
rivers  of  our  own  state. 

LESSON  12. — Have  the  children  tell  why  they  like  evergreen  trees.  Which 
kind  do  they  like  best?  Of  all  the  evergreens  that  we  have  the  white  pine  is  by 
far  the  most  beautiful  tree.  Discuss  the  uses  of  the  various  , kinds  of  evergreen 
trees.  Your  geographies  may  tell  you  something  about  the  places  where  the  ever- 
greens grow  in  great  numbers.  The  white  pine  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all 


50 

our  pine  trees.  You  will  find  it  in  Eastern  United  States  and  in  the  region  of 
the  Great  Lakes.  So  important  has  this  been  for  making  lumber  that  most  of  our 
best  white  pine  trees  have  been  cut  down  and  been  used.  Steps  are  being  taken 
to  renew  the  forests  of  white  pines  in  Maine  and  some  of  the  states  along  the 
Great  Lakes. 

The  yellow  pine,  which  you  do  not  find  growing  in  Illinois  at  all  even  as  an 
ornamental  tree,  grows  in  the  South.  It  is  at  present  one  of  the  most  important 
pines  for  the  making  of  lumber.  We  sometimes  call  it  hard  pine.  The  red  pine 
which  grows  far  to  the  north  is  also  an  important  tree  in  the  making  of  lumber. 

The  Norway  spruce,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  a  native  of  Europe.  We  use  it 
here  as  an  ornamental  tree.  In  Europe  its  lumber  is  used  very  largely  for  building 
purposes  and  for  the  making  of  furniture. 

The  bark  of  the  hemlock  is  used  in  tanning  leather.  It  is  usually  mixed  with 
oak  bark  and  the  combination  makes  the  very  best  kind  of  leather  that  we  have. 

The  red  cedar  is  sometimes  called  '  *  pencil  cedar ' '  because  its  wood  is  used  so 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  pencils. 

LESSON  13. — Muscles.  Discuss  with  the  children  what  enables  us  to  move 
about?  Let  them  think  of  their  bodies  as  living  machines  that  move  and  do  work 
of  various  kinds.  It  is  the  muscles,  with  the  aid  of  the  bones  that  make  any 
movement  or  motion  possible.  Place  your  right  hand  on  your  left  arm  above  the 
elbow  and  grasp  it  tightly.  Now  lift  a  book  from  the  desk  and  raise  it  toward 
your  head.  Can  you  feel  your  arm  muscles  moving  as  you  lift  the  book?  Place 
your  hand  on  your  sides  and  note  the  movements  of  the  muscles  as  you  take  a  deep 
breath.  Find  other  muscles  that  move  as  you  do  various  things.  Look  in  the 
physiology  for  a  picture  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  and  study  how  they  are 
arranged. 

LESSON  14. — Besides  the  muscles  of  our  arms,  legs,  shoulders,  chest,  that 
move  the  parts  of  the  body  that  you  can  see  and  control  can  you  think  of  other 
muscles  that  move  parts  of  the  body  that  you  cannot  see?  Among  these  have  the 
children  think  of  the  heart,  which  is  made  mostly  of  muscles.  The  walls  of  the 
stomach  and  other  digestive  organs  have  muscles  in  them  that  help  to  move  the 
food  about  while  it  is  digesting.  Muscles  move  our  eyes,  and  the  vocal  cords  with 
which  we  talk.  Some  of  the  muscles  are  not  under  the  control  of  our  wills  at  all.  They 
move  and  work  right  along  whether  we  are  awake  or  asleep.  Look  in  your  physiology 
to  find  the  names  of  the  muscles  that  are  under  our  control  and  those  that  we  do 
not  control. 

LESSON  15. — Let  us  think  of  some  other  work  the  muscles  do  besides  moving 
the  body.  Straighten  up  with  your  head  erect,  your  chest  rounded  out,  and  your 
shoulders  back.  What  enables  you  to  stand  so  straight  and  tall?  Now  let  your 
head  drop  and  your  shoulders  droop  forward.  Hold  your  hands  across  your  back 
while  you  do  this  and  then  straighten  up  again.  Do  this  several  times.  Do  you 
feel  the  movement  of  the  muscles  along  the  spinal  column?  These  muscles  help  to 
hold  the  spinal  column  straight.  Other  muscles  help  in  holding  our  body  in  shape 
as  well  as  in  moving  parts  of  it  about.  Another  use  of  the  muscles  is  to  help  protect 
some  of  the  delicate  organs. 

LESSON  16. — What  are  muscles  like?  Do  not  spend  much  time  in  studying 
the  structure  of  the  muscles.  Eead  what  your  physiology  says  about  the  structure 
and  look  at  the  pictures.  The  children  should  realize  that  all  the  lean  meat  of 
animals  is  made  of  muscles.  The  white  tissue  that  holds  the  muscle  bundles  together 
in  the  meat  is  called  connective  tissue.  This  is  easily  found.  The  muscles  in  the 
leg  of  a  chicken  show  the  form  of  muscles  very  well.  A  small  piece  of  lean  meat 
cooked  for  a  short  time  and  then  torn  to  pieces  in  a  little  water  will  show  the 
bundles  of  muscle  fiber. 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  FEBRUARY. — Muscles  continued.  Tendons;  how  related  to 
muscles;  illustrate  by  chicken  leg.  Bones;  their  relation  to  the  muscles.  Function 
of  l)ones  in  protection  of  parts  of  body.  Good,  positions  in  standing,  sitting,  ivalk- 
ing.  Necessity  of  forming  good  habits  while  young.  Practice  in  erect  carriage  of 


51 

body.    Exercise;    necessity;   time;   place;   kinds;  practice;   effects   of  alcohol   upon 
bones  and  mil*- 

LESSOX  1. — At  the  ends  of  the  muscles  are  strong  white  cords  called  tendons 
that  help  to  fasten  the  muscles  to  the  bones.  Look  in  the  physiology  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  tendons.  Straighten  out  your  left  arm.  Xow  place  the  fingers  of  your 
right  hand  just  over  the  elbow  joint  and  bend  your  arm  upward.  Can  you  feel  the 
cord  like  tendon  that  passes  over  the  elbow  as  you  move  your  arm?  Can  you  tell 
where  this  tendon  is  fastened?  Look  at  the  back  of  your  hand.  Move  your  fingers 
up  and  down.  Can  you  see  the  long  tendons  moving?  Where  are  the  muscles  to 
which  these  tendons* are  attached  and  that  help  to  move  your  fingers?  (These 
muscles  are  situated  at  some  distance  up  on  the  arm  and  yet  they  are  able  to  move 
the  fingers.)  If  you  can  procure  the  leg  and  foot  of  a  chicken  you  will  be  able 
to  show  exactly  how  the  muscles  and  tendons  work  together. 

LESSONS  2,  3,  AND  4. — The  muscles  cannot  do  their  work  alone.  You  found 
that  the  muscles  on  your  upper  arm  thickened  up,  and  the  tendon  which  passed 
over  the  eblow  joint  pulled  on  the  part  of  the  arm  below  the  elbow.  The  muscle 
could  not  have  done  its  work  if  the  tendon  had  not  been  fastened  securely  to  the 
bone  of  the  lower  arm.  What,  then,  is  one  of  the  uses  of  the  bones  of  the  body? 
(They  serve  as  attachments  for  the  muscles  and  so  make  it  possible  for  the  muscles 
to  do  their  work.) 

We  think  of  the  bones  as  making  up  the  framework  of  the  body.  With  the 
aid  of  the  physiology  have  the  children  learn  the  chief  group  of  bones  in  the  body, 
skull  bones,  ribs,  shoulder  blades,  collar  bones,  spinal  column,  arms,  hips  and  legs. 
Spend  some  time  identifying  these  groups  of  bones  first  by  use  of  pictures  and  then 
in  their  own  bodies.  Spend  some  time  in  discussing  the  importance  of  the  spinal 
column.  Have  the  children  see  that  it  is  the  part  that  helps  to  support  all  the  rest 
of  the  body.  If  this  is  bent  or  crooked  the  whole  body  will  be  bent  or  crooked. 
Have  the  children  recall  that  it  is  the  large  muscles  along  the  spinal  column  that 
help  to  hold  the  spinal  column  erect. 

LESSOX  5. — Some  of  the  bones  are  used  to  protect  the  delicate  vital  organs  of 
the  body.  Can  you  think  of  any  that  do  this?  Study  this  from  the  physiology. 
Have  the  children  summarize  all  the  uses  of  the  bones. 

LESSOX  6. — What  is  the  difference  between  children's  bones  and  those  of 
grown  up  people?  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  tip  of  the  breast  bone  of  a  chicken? 
How  does  it  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  breast  bone?  This  soft  white  part  is  called 
cartilage.  Many  bones  of  little  children  are  like  cartilage  and  as  the  children 
grow  older  the  soft  bones  become  harder  and  harder.  If  this  is  true  you  can  easily 
see  how  the  bones  of  children  may  be  bent  and  instead  of  growing  straight  grow 
crooked.  If  we  really  want  our  bones  to  grow  so  that  we  shall  be  straight  and  tall 
when  we  are  men  and  women  we  must  begin  when  we  are  children  to  hold  ourselves 
erect.  We  all  like  to  see  a  person  who  is  straight.  He  looks  very  much  better  than 
one  who  is  round  shouldered  or  who  stoops  far  over.  How  may  we  grow  straight 
and  tall?  Here  is  a  rule  that  was  given  by  a  teacher  of  physical  training  to  help 
you  to  remember  how  to  stand:  Place  your  feet  firmly  on  the  floor  your  weight  on 
the  balls,  and  not  on  the  heels.  Xow  stand  with  your  head  pushed  up  as  high  as 
you  can.  Bound  out  your  chest  and  keep  your  belt  in.  Hold  your  chin  in  and 
think  of  your  neck  pushing  against  your  collar.  Practice  standing  erect,  not  once 
but  many  times  until  you  form  the  habit. 

LESSOX  7. — There  are  some  things  that  you  should  think  about,  not  in  order 
to  do  them  but  to  avoid  them  if  you  are  going  to  form  correct  habits  of  standing. 
Do  not  stand  on  one  foot  for  any  length  of  time  or  you  are  likely  to  grow  one 
sided.  Do  not  lean  against  the  desk  or  other  object,  but  stand  up  straight  on  both 
feet.  Practice  standing  correctly  in  class.  The  teacher  should  feel  that  time  spent 
in  actual  practice  is  worth  much  more  to  the  children  than  time  taken  to  discuss 
how  they  should  stand.  What  advantage  will  it  be  to  the  children  to  talk  about  how 
to  stand  erect  and  not  put  this  knowledge  into  practice? 

LESSOX  8. — To  learn  to  sit  correctly  is  just  as  important  as  to  stand  well. 
We  should  not  sit  near  the  edge  of  the  chair  but  well  back  with  the  lower  part  of 
the  spine  resting  against  the  back  of  the  chair  or  seat.  The  seat  should  be  low 
enough  to  permit  the  feet  to  rest  upon  the  floor.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that 


52 

each  child  has,  if  possible,  a  seat  that  is  suited  to  his  size.  Practice  sitting  prop- 
erly. This  does  not  mean  sitting  stiffly  without  moving  the  position,  but  it  does 
mean  avoiding  all  the  things  that  tend  to  make  round  shoulders  and  limp  backs. 

LESSON  9. — Can  you  think  of  some  other  wrong  positions  in  sitting?  Do  you 
ever  see  any  one  sitting  on  the  edge  of  the  seat  and  yet  leaning  back  against  the 
back  of  the  chair?  It  is  not  hard  to  see  that  he  is  likely  to  make  himself  round 
shouldered.  Do  you  bend  over  while  you  are  reading  or  writing?  If  your  desk  is 
the  right  height  you  can  form  the  habit  of  sitting  erect  while  you  are  writing  and 
reading.  Do  you  ever  sit  on  one  foot?  If  you  do,  try  to  break  up  the  habit,  for 
you  are  likely  to  twist  your  hip  and  sometimes  your  spinal  column  by  doing  this. 

LESSONS  10  AND  11. — There  is  one  other  part  of  the  body  in  connection  with 
bones  and  muscles  that  we  should  know  something  about.  How  are  the  bones  held 
together?  Of  course  you  have  already  seen  that  the  muscles  help  in  a  way  to  hold 
the  bones  in  good  position  but  what  makes  it  possible  for  the  bones  to  work  so 
freely  upon  each  other?  It  is  of  course  the  joints.  Use  your  physiology  to  find  out 
all  the  different  kinds  of  joints  in  the  human  body.  Now  look  for  illustrations  of 
these  kinds  in  your  own  body.  What  kind  of  a  joint  in  your  elbow?  In  the  hip? 
In  the  fingers?  Shoulder?  Knee?  etc.  How  are  the  bones  at  the  joints  held  to- 
gether? Look  in  your  physiology  to  find  the  answer  to  this.  Look  for  pictures 
showing  the  ligaments  that  hold  the  bones  together.  What  happens  when  you 
sprain  your  wrist,  or  ankle,  or  knee?  Some  of  the  ligaments  are  torn  loose.  It 
takes  a  long  time  for  these  ligaments  to  grow  firm,  again.  In  fact,  it  often  takes 
longer  for  a  bad  sprain  to  entirely  recover  than  for  a  broken  bone  to  heal  and  be- 
come strong. 

LESSON  12. — Exercise. — Discuss  with  the  children  why  we  should  exercise. 
They  should  appreciate  the  fact  that  exercise  is  one  of  the  things  needed  to  keep 
us  well  and  strong.  It  makes  the  blood  flow  faster  and  the  food  digest  better.  It 
makes  us  breathe  more  deeply,  and  even  makes  us  think  better.  We  should  take 
regular  exercise  and  the  right  kind  if  we  are  to  get  most  good  out  of  it.  Have 
the  children  name  some  of  the  ways  of  exercising.  Work  and  play  are  the  two 
most  common  methods.  Some  people  take  all  their  exercise  in  work  and  others  all 
in  play.  The  best  plan  is  to  have  some  of  both  kinds.  Name  some  of  the  games  that 
are  very  active,  such  as  running,  jumping,  skipping  rope,  etc.  How  do  you  feel  after 
you  have  run  very  fast  for  a  number  of  minutes?  Name  some  games  that  do  not 
require  as  much  effort  as  running  and  jumping.  All  of  our  games  are  good  for  us 
if  we  do  not  play  too  long  and  if  we  play  regularly  every  day. 

LESSON  13. — Place  and  time  to  exercise.  There  is  but  one  best  place  to  play 
nctive  games  and  that  is  out  of  doors.  Can  you  think  why  this  is  so?  The  out- 
door air  is  always  pure.  Do  you  breathe  any  faster,  use  any  more  oxygen  when 
you  exercise  than  when  you  are  quiet?  You  see  then  how  important  it  is  to  have 
plenty  of  air  while  you  are  exercising.  If  you  play  indoors  see  to  it  that  the  room 
is  as  full  of  fresh  air  as  possible. 

Is  there  any  time  that  is  better  for  exercise  than  another?  You  should  not  take 
very  violent  exercise  just  before  eating.  If  you  are  very  hot  or  tired  from  running 
or  playing  you  should  rest  a  short  time  before  you  eat  anything.  In  the  same  way 
it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  exercise  immediately  after  eating.  Just  after  eating  the 
blood  is  needed  in  the  stomach  and  if  you  exercise  too  much  the  blood  will  go  to 
the  muscles.  A  good  time  to  exercise  outdoors  is  during  recesses,  at  noon  and  before 
and  after  school.  When  you  have  been  sitting  still  reading,  studying,  or  sewing 
for  an  hour  or  more  you  should  take  a  few  minutes  for  some  kind  of  exercise. 

A  few  moments  given  to  vigorous  exercise  of  the  arms  and  to  deep  breathing 
with  the  window  wide  open  every  hour  will  do  much  not  only  to  keep  the  children 
in  a  better  condition  physically  but  will  also  enable  them  to  do  better  mental  work. 

Another  thing  to  remember  about  exercise  is  that  it  will  do  most  good  if  you 
exercise  regularly  every  day,  not  a  great  deal  one  day  and  very  little  the  next. 
Country  boys  and  girls  have  the  very  best  chance  to  exercise  in  the  open  air,  long 
walks  to  school,  outdoor  work,  riding  and  driving  ought  to  help  keep  them  strong 
and  well,  but  at  the  same  time  they  need  to  exercise  to  use  the  muscles  that  will 
help  them  carry  their  bodies  erect  and  to  sit  properly  just  as  much  as  the  girls  and 
boys  of  the  city  do. 


53 

LESSONS  14  AND  15. — Have  the  children  name  all  the  ways  that  we  have 
already  talked  about  that  help  us  to  keep  the  muscles  and  bones  in  good  condition. 
In  order  to  have  strong  muscles  we  need,  of  course,  good  food  to  eat,  and  good  air  to 
breathe.  There  are  some  things  too  that  we  should  avoid,  among  which  is  the  use 
of  alcohol  or  tobacco.  A  man  who  uses  a  great  deal  of  alcohol  usually  has  weak, 
soft  muscles  which  cannot  endure  the  same  amount  of  work  that  they  could  if  alcohol 
were  left  alone.  I  wonder  if  you  know  that  when  athletes  are  training  for  football 
or  some  of  the  big  track  meets  they  do  not  use  any  alcohol  or  any  tobacco.  They 
know  they  will  not  be  as  likely  to  succeed  if  they  use  these  stimulants.  It  seems 
pretty  evident  also  that  boys  who  use  tobacco  while  they  are  young  are  likely  to  be 
stunted  in  their  growth.  That  in  itself  is  a  good  reason  for  leaving  cigars  and 
cigarettes  alone. 

Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why  business  men,  as  a  rule,  do  not  hire  boys 
who  have  formed  the  habit  of  smoking  cigarettes?  Careful  records  have  been  kept 
which  show  that  boys  who  use  tobacco  are  not  as  reliable,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  as  the  boys  who  are  free  from  this  habit.  You  probably  know  that  the  bad 
effects  of  tobacco  and  alcohol  on  boys  is  considered  so  important  that  laws  have 
been  passed  in  our  own  state  and  other  states  by  which  any  person  selling  these 
stimulants  to  boys  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonment  or  by  a  fine.  Read  all  you 
can  find  in  your  physiology  of  the  effects  of  tobacco  and  alcohol  on  the  muscles  and 
bones. 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOR  MARCH. — Forms  of  water,  liquid,  solid,  ice,  snow,  frost,  hail, 
vapor,  "hard"  and  "soft"  water.  Simple  experiments.  Uses  of  water  as  a  liquid, 
as  a  gas,  as  ice.  How  is  ice  stored  for  summer  use?  Refrigerator. 

Hygiene  of  feet.  Bones  and  parts  of  the  foot.  Care;  desirability  of  free  motion 
of  the  toes.  A  good  shoe. 

Leather,  kinds,  sources,  methods  of  preparation,  various  uses,  values;  care  of 
leather. 

LESSON  1.  FORMS  OF  WATER.— Today  we  are  going  to  talk  about  some- 
thing that  you  have  known  all  your  lives;  something  that  you  cannot  live  with- 
out. It  is  so  common  that  you  probably  have  never  thought  there  is  anything  very 
wonderful  about  it  and  yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  the  world. 
This  that  we  are  going  to  talk  about  is  water.  We  call  water  a  liquid.  Can  you 
think  of  any  other  form  in  which  water  is  sometimes  found?  Does  it  ever  become 
a  solid  instead  of  a  liquid?  What  happens  on  a  cold  night  when  you  place  a  cup 
of  water  out  of  doors?  When  water  freezes  it  changes  from  the  liquid  to  the  solid 
state.  How  cold  does  water  have  to  become  before  it  freezes?  (Thirty-two  degrees 
Fahrenheit).  Look  on  your  thermometer  to  find  this  point.  Look  at  a  piece  of  ice. 
Is  it  the  same  throughout  ?  Did  you  ever  watch  a  pond  or  a  puddle  of  water  begin 
to  freeze  ?  Where  does  it  freeze  first  ?  How  does  it  freeze  ? 

LESSON  2. — We  have  already  found  that  water  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  liquid 
and  also  in  the  form  of  a  solid.  Does  water  exist  in  any  other  form?  To  answer 
this  question  we  shall  try  a  simple  experiment.  Put  a  little  water  into  a  tin  cup 
and  set  the  cup  upon  the  stove'  or  in  some  warm  place.  Leave  it  there  a  short  time 
or  until  the  next  day.  What  has  become  of  the  water?  We  say  it  has  evaporated. 
That  means  that  the  water  has  changed  into  a  vapor  or  gas.  What  do  you  think 
became  of  the  vapor?  It  went  off  into  the  air.  Can  you  see  this  water  vapor  in 
the  air?  (We  cannot  see  water  vapor  any  more  than  the  other  gases  of  which  the 
air  is  composed.  They  are  all  invisible.)  If  we  should  set  a  pan  of  water  out  of 
doors  on  a  warm  day  will  it  change  into  vapor  ?  What  becomes  of  the  water  in 
puddles?  in  the  road?  in  clothes  when  they  are  hung  out  upon  the  line?  We  say 
the  clothes  dry,  but  what  really  happens  is  that  the  water  evaporates;  that  is.  it 
changes  to  vapor  and  goes  off  into  the  air.  Name  other  examples  of  evaporation 
of  water. 

LESSON  3.  RAIN. — What  do  you  think  becomes  of  all  the  water  vapor  that 
goes  into  the  air  from  the  rivers,  oceans,  lakes  and  streams?  Does  it  always  remain 
invisible?  Watch  the  spout  of  a  teakettle  when  the  water  is  boiling  very  hard. 
Can  you  see  anything  for  a  short  distance  from  the  spout?  There  is  something 


54 

there  although  you  cannot  see  it.  I  am  sure  you  can  think  what  it  is, — invisible 
water  vapor  coming  from  the  water  in  the  teakettle.  What  do  you  see  a  little  fur- 
ther out  from  the  teakettle?  We  call  this  steam.  It  is  the  vapor  slowly  changing 
back  into  water  again.  Whenever  invisible  water  vapor  is  cooled  it  changes  back 
into  tiny  drops  of  water.  We  say  it  condenses.  Try  to  catch  some  of  the  vapor 
from  the  boiling  teakettle.  To  do  this  set  a  cup  out  of  doors  or  in  some  cool  place 
until  the  cup  is  thoroly  cool.  Now  hold  it  close  to  the  spout  of  the  teakettle  and 
let  the  vapor  pour  into  it.  What  takes  place?  How  much  water  can  you  obtain  in 
this  way?  You  now  see  that  heat  changes  water  into  vapor  and  when  the  vapor  is 
cool  it  changes  back  into  water  again.  Steam  is  made  up  of  such  tiny  drops  of 
water  that  they  are  light  enough  to  float  in  the  air. 

Does  any  of  the  vapor  that  goes  up  into  the  air  from  the  earth's  surface  ever 
change  back  into  water  so  that  you  may  see  it  again?  This  is  what  happens.  As 
the  vapor  goes  up  into  the  air  it  is  cooled  just  as  it  is  when  the  steam  gets  some 
distance  from  the  teakettle.  What  does  it  form?  (The  children  will  readily  see 
that  this  forms  clouds.  In  fact  the  steam  you  see  near  the  teakettle  is  a  small 
cloud.  When  the  clouds  are  cooled  still  more,  the  tiny  drops  of  mist  unite  with  one 
another  and  soon  get  so  large  that  they  can  no  longer  float  in  the  air.)  Then  what 
happens?  They  come  down  in  drops  and  we  have  a  shower  of  rain. 

LESSON  4. — Have  the  children  review  the  story  of  the  raindrops.  Have  them 
think  of  the  rain  first  as  water  on  the  earth  or  in  the  river,  or  ocean.  It  changes 
to  vapor  and  floats  upward.  Is  it  visible  or  invisible  at  this  time?  Third,  it  is 
cooled  and  forms  clouds.  Fourth,  when  the  clouds  become  cooler,  what  happens  ? 

The  water  from  the  clouds  does  not  always  fall  in  the  form  of  rain.  Name 
other  things  that  come  from  the  clouds  (snow,  hail,  sleet).  Did  you  ever  pick  up 
a  hail  stone?  What  shape  was  it?  Do  hail  stones  look  like  ice?  How  do  you  sup- 
pose they  are  formed  in  the  clouds?  Sometimes,  just  as  raindrops  are  forming  in  a 
cloud,  the  cloud  moves  into  some  air  that  is  freezing  cold,  or  perhaps  the  freezing 
cold  air  moves  into  the  cloud.  What  happens  to  the  drops?  They  freeze  solid  and 
fall  in  the  form  of  hail.  When  do  we  have  hail  storms  most  frequently?  This 
means  then  that  high  up  in  the  air  it  is  freezing  cold  when  we  are  having  hot  sum- 
mer weather  down  upon  earth. 

LESSON  5.  SNOW. — Can  you  think  how  snow  is  formed?  When  a  cloud  of 
mist  that  is  not  yet  formed  into  rain  drops  becomes  very  cold  it  freezes,  forming 
snow  crystals.  The  crystals  often  unite  forming  the  large  snow  flakes.  Did  you 
ever  catch  snow  upon  your  coat  sleeve  and  notice  the  form  of  the  flakes  or  crystals? 
Snow  crystals  are  all  six-pointed  stars,  or  at  least  they  have  six  rays.  The  outer 
part  of  the  crystal  may  not  always  show  six  points.  Sometimes  when  there  is  fine  dry 
snow  you  can  easily  see  the  six-pointed  stars  if  you  catch  some  of  the  crystals  upon 
a  dark  piece  of  cloth.  Has  much  snow  fallen  this  winter?  Has  it  stayed  upon  the 
ground  a  long  time?  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  direction  from  which  most  of  our 
snow  storms  come?  Is  the  snow  of  any  value  to  us  in  the  winter  time?  What  are 
some  of  the  plants  that  are  covered  by  the  snow?  (wheat,  clover,  alfalfa,  strawberry, 
wild  flowers,  etc.)  Is  the  snow  covering  of  any  use  to  these  plants?  (The  snow 
protects  these  plants  from  severe  freezing  weather.  While  the  snow  is  cold  it  really 
acts  something  like  a  blanket  for  these  plants.) 

LESSON  6.  FKOST. — Watch  for  white  frost  on  the  ground  and  plants  and 
walks.  Name  all  the  places  that  you  have  seen  frost  this  winter.  Do  we  ever  have 
trees  covered  with  white  hoar  frost?  What  is  the  color  of  hoar  frost?  See  how 
many  different  forms  of  frost  you  can  find  on  objects  out  of  doors.  Do  we  ever 
have  frost  inside  of  our  homes  as  well  as  out  of  doors?  How  many  different  figures 
can  you  find  in  the  frost  work  on  the  window  panes? 

Where  does  the  frost  come  from?  We  must  think  again  of  the  invisible  water 
vapor  in  the  air.  You  have  not  forgotten  what  happens  when  it  is  cooled.  Now 
suppose  the  walk  or  ground  becomes  very  cold  at  night  and  the  air  with  the  water 
vapor  in  it  touches  the  cool  objects.  The  vapor  will  at  once  start  to  change  back 
into  water  and  before  it  is  fairly  changed  it  freezes  and  we  have  beautiful  frost 
crystals.  You  see  then  that  the  frost  on  the  window  panes  in  our  homes  is  nothing 
but  the  vapor  that  is  in  the  room  touching  the  cold  windows  and  freezing. 

LESSON  7.  DEW. — In  the  summer  We  have  dew  instead  of  frost  on  objects 
out  of  doors.  Are  you  ready  to  tell  now  where  the  dew  comes  from?  It,  too,  is 


55 

water  vapor  from  the  air  or  sometimes  moisture  from  plants.  Did  you  ever  have 
the  dew  settle  on  the  outside  of  a  glass  or  pitcher  filled  with  cold  water  on  a  hot 
day  in  summer?  Can  you  explain  where  this  dew  came  from?  Was  the  pitcher  cold 
or  hot  on  the  outside  when  filled  with  cold  water?  When  the  vapor  in  the  warm  air 
of  the  room  touched  the  cold  pitcher  what  happened?  It  was  condensed  and  formed 
into  drops  of  dew.  In  the  same  way  dew  forms  upon  objects  out  of  doors  in  the 
summer  time. 

LESSON  8. — What  do  we  call  water  that  we  catch  from  rains  in  the  cistern, 
or  pails,  or  tubs?  Why  is  it  "soft  water"?  To  help  answer  this  question  let  us 
think  of  well  water.  Do  we  call  it  soft  or  hard?  What  do  we  mean  by  hard 
water?  To  answer  this  put  some  soap  into  a  pan  with  a  little  warm  well  water  in 
it  and  stir  it  around  for  a  few  moments.  What  happens?  At  first  you  notice  that 
it  becomes  milky  and  then  a  little  scum  arises  on  the  top.  This  is  a  sure  test  of 
hard  water.  Xow  put  some  soap  in  the  same  way  into  soft  water.  How  does  it 
differ  from  the  hard  water  ?  Must  not  hard  water  have  something  in  it  that  the 
soft  water  lacks?  Where  did  the  water  in  the  well  come  from?  Was  it  ever  rain 
water?  All  well  water  was  once  rain  that  soaked  into  the  ground  and  moved  slowly 
downward,  but  it  has  changed  as  it  moved  through  the  ground.  A  simple  experi- 
ment will  show  something  of  what  happened.  Put  a  few  spoonfuls  of  salt  into  half 
a  cup  of  warm  water.  Drop  it  in  a  little  at  a  time  and  stir  until  it  all  disappears. 
What  has  become  of  the  salt?  It  has  dissolved  in  the  water.  We  say  that  a 
solution  is  formed.  In  the  same  way  water  in  the  ground  dissolves  different  sub- 
stances through  which  it  passes.  Some  of  these  substances  are  lime,  sometimes  iron, 
and  magnesium.  We  cannot  see  them  in  the  water  any  more  than  we  can  see  the 
salt  in  the  cup  of  water.  That  is,  they  are  in  solution  in  the  water.  These  make 
the  water  hard. 

LESSOX  9. — Place  upon  the  stove  the  cup  of  water  into  which  you  stirred  the 
salt  and  let  it  remain  there  till  all  the  water  has  disappeared.  Now  look  into  the 
cup.  Did  the  water  vapor  as  it  passed  out  take  the  salt  with  it  or  is  the  salt  left 
behind?  If  you  had  caught  the  vapor  and  let  it  turn  back  into  water  would  it  have 
been  soft  or  hard?  It  would  have  been  soft,  for  it  had  left  behind  in  the  cup  all  the 
salt.  In  the  same  way  when  water  goes  up  into  the  air  as  vapor  it  leaves  behind 
in  the  river,  lakes,  etc.,  all  of  the  substances  that  make  it  hard. 

Look  into  your  teakettle  to  see  if  you  can  find  a  coating  of  lime  and  other  sub- 
stances that  the  water  has  left  behind  when  it  boils  and  changes  into  vapor. 

LESSON  10. — Have  the  children  name  all  of  the  uses  of  water  that  they  know, 
especially  of  soft  water.  Is  ice  of  any  use  to  us?  (Skating,  use  in  our  refrigerators, 
making  ice  cream,  etc.)  How  is  ice  stored  for  summer  use?  If  some  one  in  the 
district  has  an  ice  house,  let  the  children  describe  this.  An  ice  house  is  made  usu- 
ally with  two  walls,  often  with  sawdust  between  to  keep  the  ice  cool.  It,  too,  is 
often  surrounded  by  sawdust.  In  this  way  all  the  warm  summer  air  is  kept  out 
and  the  ice  remains  solid  during  the  warmest  weather. 

LESSON  11.  PHYSIOLOGY.— Hygiene  of  the  feet.  Discuss  briefly  with  the 
children  the  uses  of  our  feet.  The  chief  one  is  to  bear  easily  the  weight  of  our 
bodies  while  we  are  standing  and  walking.  Study  from  the  physiology  the  parts  of 
the  foot,  the  number  of  bones,  how  they  are  fastened  together  with  the  ligaments, 
and  the  arches  of  the  foot.  Impress  the  children  with  the  fact  that  one  of  the  im- 
portant things  to  consider  in  the  care  of  the  feet  is  to  keep  the  toes  free  to  move 
so  that  they  as  well  as  the  ankle  may  be  of  value  to  us  in  walking  and  running. 

LESSON  12. — What  are  some  of  the  other  things  that  we  may  do  in  caring 
for  the  feet?  One  thing  we  should  do  is  to  see  that  we  wear  shoes  that  fit  the  feet 
perfectly..  That  means  that  they  will  not  be  too  large  nor  too  small.  The  sole 
should  be  the  same  width  as  the  foot.  What  kind  of  heels  should  the  shoes  have? 
They  should  be  broad  and  rather  low.  The  inner  side  of  the  shoe  should  be  straight 
so  that  the  great  toe  should  be  in  the  same  straight  line  with  the  side  of  the  heel. 
The  shoe  should  also  allow  all  of  the  toes  to  point  straight  forward.  Do  you  think 
that  a  very  pointed  shoe  would  do  that?  What  is  a  pointed  shoe  likely  to  do  to 
the  toes?  It  not  only  prevents  freedom  of  the  toes  but  in  time  deforms  the  foot 
because  it  presses  the  great  toe  too  far  over  at  the  top,  and  sometimes  causes  the 
joint  to  become  enlarged  producing  corns  and  bunions.  Patent  leather  shoes  are 


56 

not  a  good  kind  to  wear.  In  summer  they  are  likely  to  keep  the  feet  too  warm. 
In  cold  weather  they  are  likely  to  keep  the  feet  too  cold.  Tan  or  russet  shoes  are 
much  cooler  in  summer  than  black  ones.  Another  thing  to  remember  in  caring  for 
the  feet  is  to  keep  them  dry  and  just  warm  enough  to  be  comfortable.  If  they  are 
too  warm  they  are  likely  to  perspire  freely  which  may  be  injurious  to  the  feet  if 
the  stockings  cannot  be  changed  frequently. 

Another  thing  to  be  observed  is  the  lacing  of  the  shoes.  Did  you  ever  lace  your 
shoes  so  tightly  that  little  ridges  were  formed  between  the  laces?  Can  you  think 
why  we  should  not  do  this?  It  keeps  the  blood  from  circulating  freely  and  so  pre- 
vents free  action  of  the  foot,  especially  of  the  ankle.  Tight  garters  are  just  as 
injurious. 

We  should  try  to  form  right  habits  of  using  the  feet  in  standing  and  walking. 
If  it  is  important  to  use  the  toes,  then  we  should  practice  so  that  the  muscles  may 
keep  strong  and  able  to  do  their  work.  Some  exercise  wall  help  in  this.  Eaise  the 
heels  from  the  floor,  bearing  the  weight  upon  the  toes.  Practice  this  a  number  of 
times  each  day.  Try  to  walk  with  the  toes  straight  forward  not  turned  out  nor 
turned  in.  It  is  very  important  that  the  children  learn  while  young  to  value  the 
importance  of  comfortable  shoes,  so  that  their  feet  may  move  with  ease  and  freedom, 
and  they  may  avoid  the  deformed  and  painful  feet  that  so  many  of  their  parents 
possess. 

LESSON  13.  LEATHEE. — What  are  your  shoes  made  of?  Are  all  of  your 
shoes  made  of  the  same  kind  of  leather?  Look  at  them  and  see  how  many  differ- 
ent parts  you  can  find.  If  you  should  rip  them  to  pieces,  how  many  pieces  would 
you  have?  The  lower  part  of  the  shoe  that  covers  the  toes  and  extends  around  to 
the  heel  is  the  vamp.  The  back  stiff  part  of  the  heel  is  the  counter.  The  tip  covers 
the  front  part  of  the  vamp  over  the  toes.  The  upper  part  that  is  sewed  all  around 
to  the  vamp  is  the  top  or  quarter.  The  vamp  and  the  quarters  when  sewed  together 
form  what  we  call  the  upper.  Then  there  is  the  sole  and  the  heel.  Can  you  tell 
how  the  sole  is  fastened  to  the  upper  in  your  shoe?  Some  shoes  have  the  soles 
sewed  on,  some  have  the  outer  sole  tacked  on.  How  is  the  heel  made?  Can  you 
tell  whether  it  is  in  one  piece  or  many  pieces?  There  is  another  part  of  the  shoe 
that  you  cannot  see,  a  little  steel  strap  in  the  instep  that  helps  to  support  the  shoe 
and  keep  it  in  shape.  This  is  called  the  shank. 

LESSONS  14  AND  15.— What  is  leather  made  of?  Can  you  name  all  of  the 
animals  whose  skins  are  used  for  this  purpose?  (Cowrs,  calves,  horses,  sheep,  goats, 
dogs,  alligators.)  The  skins  of  the  large,  full-grown  animals  are  called  hides;  those 
of  small  animals,  such  as  calves,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs,  are  called  skins.  Which  do 
you  suppose  yields  the  softer  leather?  Leather  made  from  hides  is  very  thick  and 
heavy.  It  is  used  for  the  soles  of  our  shoes  and  for  other  things  where  heavy 
leather  is  necessary.  Do  you  know  how  leather  is  made?  Have  you  ever  heard  of 
a  tannery?  That  is  the  place  where  hides  and  skins  are  taken  to  be  made  into 
leather.  It  would  be  very  interesting  to  visit  a  tannery  to  see  just  how  leather 
is  prepared  for  our  shoes. 

In  the  first  place  we  should  knowT  that  the  structure  of  the  skins  of  animals 
is  very  much  like  that  of  our  own  skin.  On  the  outside  is  a  layer  called  by  the  same 
name  that  ours  is, — the  epidermis.  Under  this  is  the  true  skin  or  dermis.  Attached 
to  the  outside  layer  is  the  covering  of  hair. 

The  first  thing  that  is  done  when  the  hides  and  skins  are  brought  to  the  tannery 
is  to  wash  them  in  clean  water  to  remove  all  dirt.  If  they  are  dry,  as  they  often 
are  when  shipped  from  long  distances,  they  are  soaked  in  hike-warm  water  until 
they  are  softened.  Then  they  are  placed  in  large  vats  with  a  solution  of  lime. 
Heavy  hides  are  left  in  the  lime  only  a  few  days,  but  the  skins  that  are  to  make  soft 
leather  for  our  shoes  are  left  in  the  vats  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days. 

The  next  process  is  to  remove  the  hairs  and  epidermis.  To  do  this  the  skins 
are  taken  from  the  vats,  laid  upon  a  rack,  and  scraped.  Next  they  are  put  into 
another  solution  for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  fibers.  The  skins  are  now  ready 
to  be  tanned,  which  really  makes  them  into  brown  or  reddish  colored  leather.  The 
tanning  fluid  for  this  purpose  is  made  of  various  things.  Most  of  the  tanning  fluid 
or  tannin  is  made  from  the  bark  of  oak  trees  and  hemlocks.  After  tanning 
the  leather  is  oiled.  Sometimes  in  connection  with  the  oiling  coloring  matter  is 
put  in.  That  is  usually  the  case  in  the  making  of  black  leather.  The  leather  is 


57 

rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  lamp  black  and  oil.     Colored  leathers  are  dyed  with  cer- 
tain kinds  of  dye  stuff  after  they  are  tanned. 

LESSON  16. — Name  all  the  articles  that  you  know  that  are  made  of  leather 
besides  shoes.  (Belts,  suit  cases,  pocket  books,  gloves,  mittens,  harness,  buggy  tops, 
trunks,  etc.)  It  would  be  interesting  to  visit  a  cobbler  or  shoemaker  and  get 
small  samples  of  different  kinds  of  leather.  Are  leather  goods  expensive?  The 
finer  the  leather  the  more  expensive  it  is.  Do  you  know  how  the  fine  leather  of 
which  our  gloves  are  made  is  obtained?  This  is  made  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
the  leather  for  our  shoes,  but  from  the  finest  of  the  goat  skins. 

How  should  leather  goods  of  any  kind  be  cared  for?  The  most  important  thing 
is  to  keep  the  leather  from  becoming  hard  and  dry.  This  may  be  done  in  various 
ways.  Oiling  or  blacking  the  shoe  helps  to  keep  the  oil  that  is  in  it  from  escaping. 
Wading  in  water  or  wet  snow  is  very  hard  on  shoe  leather.  Can  you  see  why? 

APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOE  APEIL  AND  MAY. — Trees.  The  elm  tree  (maple  or  oak  as 
alternative);  study  of  twig  at  time  of  bud  opening;  distinguish  flower  bud  and  twig 
bud,  follow  development;  kinds  of  elm  (maple  or  oak);  uses  of  wood;  historic  elms 
and  oaks;  calendar  of  typical  tree.  Oak  and  elm  galls. 

Garden,  Plan  the  home  garden  and  discuss  what  seeds  to  plant.  Study  seed 
catalogues.  Grow  radish  and  lettuce  for  early  market  or  home  consumption.  Choose 
several  different  kinds  to  determine  the  most  desirable. 

Underground  parts  of  plants  used  for  propagation;  bulbs,  tubers,  roots,  etc. 
Study  onion  as  a  type.  Sets,  seeds,  bulbs,  top  onions.  Set  out  dahlias  and  plant 
seeds  of  other  plants.  If  practicable  make  o  small  flower  bed  on  the  school  grounds. 

Make  plans  for  vacation  observation  and  study.  Plant  beets,  parsnip,  and  other 
biennials  for  fall  study.  Set  out  some  roots  of  beets  and  turnips  to  produce  seeds. 

NOTE. — The  topics  of  the  lessons  arranged  below  are  prepared  for  the  soft 
maple,  but  may  easily  be  modified  to  fit  the  elm  or  any  other  tree  that  may  be 
selected.  There  are  a  few  points  of  difference,  however,  that  may  be  stated.  The 
elm  blossoms  about  as  early  as  the  maple,  but  the  flowers  are  all  of  the  same  kind. 
Each  flower  has  its  own  stamens  and  pistil,  while  the  maple  has  two  kinds  of  flowers, 
one  bearing  stamens  and  the  other  pistils. 

The  uses  of  the  elm  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the  soft  maple.  Because  of 
its  graceful  form  and  its  endurance  it  is  a  favorite  shade  tree  everywhere.  The  wood 
is  very  tough.  It  is  used  in  making  parts  of  the  wheels  of  vehicles,  flooring,  many 
agricultural  implements,  and  is  used  extensively  in  ship  building.  It  is  also  used 
largely  in  the  making  of  barrels  and  kegs. 

There  are  several  historic  elms  that  are  worth  mentioning.  The  "Washington 
Elm  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that  Washington  is  said  to 
have  first  drawn  his  sword  under  this  tree  when  he  took  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Eevolution.  Penn's  elm  was  a  great  old  tree  that  was  probably  200  years  of 
age  when  Penn  came  to  the  new  world.  Under  this  tree  Penn  and  the  Indians  met 
and  made  the  famous  Penn  treaty.  This  tree  blew  down  in  the  year  1810. 

LESSON  1.  TEEE  STUDY. — Tell  the  children  that  tomorrow  we  are  going  to 
talk  about  the  soft  maple  tree.  How  many  have  some  of  these  trees  in  their  yards  at 
home?  Look  closely  at  one  and  be  ready  to  tell  whether  the  trunk  is  smooth  or 
rough,  whether  it  has  many  large  branches,  and  whether  the  trunk  and  branches  are 
the  same  color?  Do  the  branches  spread  out  or  grow  upward?  Are  there  many 
twigs?  Are  they  crooked  or  straight?  Do  they  droop  or  stand  erect?  What  is 
the  shape  of  the  tree?  Stand  off  at  some  distance  and  look  at  it.  Is  it  round?  Is 
it  wide  at  the  bottom  and  pointed  at  the  top  like  a  pyramid?  Is  it  the  form  of 
a  wide  column  or  is  it  shaped  like  an  umbrella?  Are  there  any  leaves  on  the  tree? 
Any  flowers? 

LESSON  2. — Bring  a  few  twigs  of  the  maple  into  the  school  room.  Place  them 
in  water  to  keep  fresh.  How  many  different  things  can  you  find  on  one  twig?  (The 
children  will  find  the  buds,  scars  where  the  leaves  were  attached  last  year,  and 
ring  scars  which  tell  each  year's  growth.)  How  many  years  old  is  the  twig*?  Where 
are  the  buds?  How  are  they  arranged  on  the  twig?  Are  they  opposite  or  alternate? 


58 

Is  there  one  at  the  end?  What  will  a  side  bud  become?  an  end  bud?  To  answer 
these  questions  watch  the  development  of  the  buds  outside,  or  place  twigs  in  water 
in  the  schoolroom.  Draw  a  twig  showing  all  the  things  you  see. 

LESSON  3. — On  some  of  the  trees  you  will  find  at  this  season  the  flowers,  or 
the  small  clusters  of  young  fruit.  If  you  find  the  flowers,  examine  them  carefully 
and  note  how  beautiful  they  are.  You  will  find  that  all  the  flowers  are  not  alike, 
some  have  the  stamens  which  bear  the  yellow  powder  called  pollen,  and  others  have 
pistils  which  grow  into  the  fruit  and  seeds.  The  flowers  that  bear  stamens  are 
called  staminate  flowers,  and  those  that  bear  pistils  are  called  pistillate  flowers. 

LESSON  4. — After  the  flowers  have  disappeared  watch  the  rapid  development 
of  the  fruit.  Make  sketches  at  different  times  showing  the  growth  of  seeds  and 
the  wings.  Do  you  find  that  the  paired  seeds  are  always  about  the  same  size?  When 
do  the  seeds  begin  to  fall?  Watch  them  flying  down  from  the  trees,  whirling  around, 
fluttering  like  butterflies.  In  what  way  are  the  wings  a  help  to  seeds?  How  far 
away  from  the  tree  do  the  winged  seeds  travel?  Why  is  it  an  advantage  for  them 
to  get  away  from  under  the  parent  tree? 

LESSON  5. — Gather  a  number  of  the  seeds  and  plant  them  in  the  school  gar- 
den or  in  flower  pots  or  boxes  in  your  window  garden.  Suggest  to  the  children 
that  they  also  plant  some  at  home.  How  long  after  the  planting  before  the  young 
plants  begin  to  appear  ?  How  many  leaves  has  the  little  tree  at  first  ?  Do  these  look 
at  all  like  maple  leaves?  Watch  for  the  appearance  of  the  next  leaves.  Where 
do  they  appear?  What  becomes  of  the  two  long  slender  leaves  which  appeared 
first?  Can  you  find  any  young  maple  trees  that  have  planted  themselves?  Where  are 
they? 

LESSON  6. — Some  time  should  be  given  to  discussion  of  the  value  of  the  maple. 
Find  what  uses  the  children  can  name,  such  as  shade,  nesting  and  feeding  places 
for  birds,  fuel  and  furniture  and  sugar  marking.  Are  there  any  objections  to  the 
soft  maple  as  a  shade  and  ornamental  tree  about  the  house? 

LESSON  7. — Do  you  know  any  other  kind  of  maples?  The  sugar  maple  is 
found  in  many  of  the  woods  of  Illinois.  The  Norway  maple  is  used  in  many  places 
as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  has  the  roundest  head  of  all  the  maples.  The  box  elder, 
which  is  found  in  many  parts  of  Illinois,  is  a  close  relative  of  the  maples. 

LESSON  8. — By  observation  the  children  will  see  that  a  bud  develops  into  a 
twig  with  leaves  on  it.  Leave  with  them  the  question  as  to  whether  leaves  con- 
tinue to  open  up  at  the  end  of  the  twig.  Toward  the  end  of  the  term  examine  the 
twigs  again  with  this  in  mind.  Note  the  length  of  the  new  twigs  at  this  time. 
Encourage  the  children  to  watch  some  particular  tree  during  the  summer  to  see  how 
long  new  leaves  continue  to  appear,  or  what  other  changes  may  be  noted. 

Another  interesting  exercise  is  the  keeping  of  a  calendar  of  an  individual  tree 
accompanied  by  sketches.  The  calendar  should  show  the  date  of  flowering  and  of 
opening  of  leaf  buds,  when  the  leaves  are  fully  grown,  when  the  fruit  ripens,  when 
the  young  trees  begin  to  grow  from  the  seeds,  and  any  other  points  of  interest. 
Simple  drawings  showing  stages  in  the  development  will  add  much  value  to  the 
work. 

THE  GAEDEN. — The  teacher  should  make  every  effort  to  have  the  children 
start  home  gardens  of  their  own.  Make  plans  for  planting  vegetables,  especially 
those  that  have  been  studied,  so  that  there  may  be  a  display  of  them  at  the  exhibit 
next  September.  Plant  beets,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  salsify;  onions  as  suggested 
in  the  lesson  on  bulbs.  Ask  each  child  to  set  out  at  least  two  beet  roots  that  have 
been  kept  over  winter ;  also  two  turnips  for  the  purpose  of  raising  seeds. 

Help  the  children  to  plan  a  simple  flower  bed  for  their  home  garden.  A  plot 
four  to  six  feet  wide  and  ten  feet  long  is  large  enough.  Plant  two  or  three  different 
flowers  in  this.  A  nice  arrangement  for  the  fourth  grade  is  as  follows : 

Set  out  a  row  of  dahlias  along  the  outside  of  the  bed.  In  front  of  this  and 
about  fifteen  inches  away,  plant  a  row  of  zinnias  or  sweet  scabious  and  in  front 
of  this,  as  a  border,  sweet  alyssum.  An  entire  bed  of  petunias  may  be  planted,  or 
one  of  nasturtiums.  All  of  these  flowers,  if  well  taken  care  of,  will  blossom  in  the 
fall  in  time  for  the  flower  exhibit. 


59 

EADISH  AND  LETTUCE.— In  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  radish  and 
lettuce^  send  to  seed  houses  for  catalogs  (any  of  the  following  will  send  catalogs 
free:  Vicks'  Sons,  Rochester,  X.  Y.;  Peter  Henderson  &  Co,  New  York  City;  Henry 
Field  &  Co.,  Shenandoah,  la.;  Henry  A.  Dreer,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 

LESSOX  9. — Study  the  different  varieties  as  described  in  the  catalogs.  Which 
are  best  for  early  results?  Which  for  a  late  crop?  If  possible  send  for  two  or 
three  varieties  to  test  them.  Each  child  should  plant  a  small  plot  at  home.  If 
there  is  a  school  garden,  let  the  class  plant  a  few  of  each  kind.  Discuss  method 
of  planting.  How  deep  should  the  seeds  be  planted?  A  good  rule  to  follow  for 
most  seed  is  this:  the  depth  should  be  almost  four  times  the  diameter  of  the  seed. 
How  far  apart  should  they  be  planted?  They  should  be  at  least  one  inch  and  a  half. 
Two  inches  are  better  for  the  summer  varieties.  Why  should  they  not  be  crowded? 

LESSOX  10. — Record  the  date  of  planting,  when  the  first  leaves  appear,  when 
the  second  leaves  appear,  and  when  the  first  radishes  are  large  enough  for  table 
use.  Do  different  varieties  differ  in  this  respect?  Test  the  quality  and  flavor  of 
the  radishes  and  decide  which  kind  you  like  best.  Does  the  rapidity  of  growth 
have  any  effect  upon  the  crispness  of  the  radishes? 

The  same  general  plan  may  be  used  for  the  study  of  the  lettuce. 

LESSOX  11.  BULBS  AXD  OTHER  UNDERGROUND  STEMS.— Ask  the  chil- 
dren if  they  can  think  of  any  plant  that  we  start  in  our  gardens  in  some  other  way 
than  by  seeds.  They  will  probably  name  potatoes,  onions,  sweet  potatoes,  dahlias, 
etc. 

The  onion  is  a  good  type  for  detailed  study.  The  materials  needed  for  these 
lessons  are  a  few  large  onions,  several  onion  sets,  if  possible  a  stem  with  top  sets 
or  bulblets,  and  some  seed.  Begin  by  asking  the  children  what  an  onion  is.  To 
answer  the  question  have  them  examine  the  large  onion.  What  do  they  find  at  the 
lower  end?  (The  fine  fibrous  roots  will  be  seen.)  Look  at  the  other  end  for  the 
shoot  or  bud.  Is  it  beginning  to  grow?  What  then  does  the  onion  resemble?  Since 
it  has  roots  at  one  end  and  a  growing  shoot  that  is  opening  into  leaves  at  the 
other  it  should  be  possible  to  answer.  (It  resembles  a  stem,  and  since  it  grows  in 
the  ground  we  call  it  an  underground  stem.)  This  particular  kind  of  underground 
stem  is  called  a  bulb.  What  is  on  the  outside  of  the  bulb?  What  do  you  think 
is  the  use  of  the  dry,  paper  covering?  To  answer  this  have  the  children  remove 
the  skin  and  then  place  the  onion  on  the  window  sill  where  it  will  get  the  rays  of 
the  sun  and  also  the  air.  After  four  or  five  days  examine  to  see  what  has  happened. 
(From  this  the  children  will  see  that  the  dry  paper  covering  keeps  the  onion  from 
drying  out.) 

LESSOX  12. — Let  us  look  more  closely  at  the  onion  bulb  to  see  how  it  is 
made.  Cut  it  in  two  across  the  middle  and  notice  that  it  is  made  up  of  layers. 
Where  are  the  layers  thicker,  at  the  outside  or  toward  the  center?  What  is  the  color 
of  the  central  portion?  What  is  the  relation  between  this  and  the  shoot?  (This 
is  really  the  beginning  of  the  shoot.)  What  uses  are  the  thick  juicy  layers  to  the 
growing  onion?  Try  the  following  experiment.  Procure  a  wide  mouthed  bottle,  a 
pickle  bottle  will  serve  the  purpose,  fill  it  with  water,  and  put  an  onion  in  the 
mouth  so  that  the  lower  part  will  be  in  the  water.  Place  the  bottle  on  the  window 
sill  and  watch  the  growth  of  the  onion  from  day  to  day.  Where  does  it  obtain  the 
food  with  which  to  grow?  (The  children  will  readily  see  that  the  bulb  furnishes 
the  food  for  the  growing  leaves  and  roots.)  What  will  a  large  onion  do  if  we 
plant  it  ? 

LESSOX  13. — How  do  we  get  new  onions  to  eat  during  the  summer?  Let  the 
children  tell  what  is  used  at  their  homes.  Some  probably  plant  sets,  some  seeds,  and 
and  some  top  onions.  Let  the  children  examine  some  sets.  How  do  they  differ 
from  the  large  onion?  Do  they  have  the  dry  covering,  the  layers,  the  tiny  roots, 
and  the  shoot  ?  They  are  just  like  the  large  onions  except  in  size.  In  fact,  they 
are  nothing  but  little  bulbs.  Last  year 's  onion  seeds  were  planted  late  in  the  season, 
the  last  of  June  or  the  first  of  July.  In  the  fall  the  tiny  bulbs  were  taken  up,  dried, 
and  kept  all  winter.  If  we  set  some  of  them  out  in  *the  ground  this  spring  they 
will  grow  rapidly  and  in  about  six  weeks  we  may  expect  to  have  onions  large  enough 
to  eat.  The  sets  may  be  planted  very  early,  for  onions  are  hardy  and  can  stand  the 
cool  spring  nights  without  injury.  How  should  they  be  planted?  (Plant  them  in 


80 

rows  two  or  three  inches  apart,  cover  with  soil  and  firm  the  soil  well  around  them. 
The  rows  should  be  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  apart.) 

LESSON  14. — Discuss  how  the  seed  beds  should  be  prepared  for  onions,  whether 
we  plant  sets  or  seeds.  Onions  require  rich  soil,  the  richer  the  better.  It  is  a  good 
thing  to  plow  the  ground  in  the  fall,  plowing  under  a  good  dressing  of  manure.  Be- 
fore planting,  the  soil  should  be  made  very  fine,  especially  the  two  or  three  inches 
on  the  top. 

Let  the  children  examine  the  seeds.  What  is  the  color?  How  many  have  ever 
seen  an  onion  in  bloom?  How  shall  we  plant  the  seed?  Sow  in  rows.  The  rows 
should  be  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  apart.  When  the  plants  are  an  inch  or 
two  high  they  should  be  thinned  until  they  are  about  two  inches  apart. 

Should  onions  be  cultivated?  How  many  of  the  children  help  weed  and  culti- 
vate onions  at  home?  It  is  a  good  thing  to  hoe  the  soil  towards  the  little  sets  so 
the  stems  will  become  white.  With  the  little  onions  grown  from  the  seeds,  however, 
the  soil  should  not  be  thrown  up  around  the  stem.  We  want  to  give  this  bulb  a 
chance  to  grow  and  spread  out  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Why?  (We  want 
it  to  make  a  large  onion  to  use  during  the  winter.) 

An  experiment  may  be  tried  in  the  school  room,  in  the  school  garden,  or  at 
home  to  see  whether  onion  seeds  germinate  quickly  and  whether  the  young  plants 
grow  slowly  or  rapidly.  Plant  a  few  seeds  in  a  box  of  soil,  keep  warm  and  well 
watered,  watch  for  the  appearance  of  plants.  In  the  same  way  compare  the  growth 
of  onions  from  sets  and  seeds. 

LESSON  15. — It  may  be  worth  while  spending  a  short  time  in  the  discussion 
of  other  ways  of  propagating  onions.  Perhaps  some  child  knows  of  the  multipliers 
or  potato  onions.  Onions  multiply  in  the  ground.  If  one  bulb  is  planted  soon  a  num- 
ber of  new  bulbs  grow  from  it.  These  new  bulbs  are  never  very  large,  but  many 
people  consider  them  very  good  to  eat. 

Other  kinds  of  onions  produce  little  bulbs  or  "bulblets"  at  the  top  of  the  stem. 
These  little  bulblets  are  often  called  top  onions.  Some  people  call  them  "sets," 
but  they  are  not  the  true  onion  sets  which  have  already  been  described.  These  top 
onions  may  be  planted  in  the  spring  just  as  the  true  sets  are,  and  they  will  produce 
onions  for  early  use. 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  onion  known  as  the  winter  or  evergreen  onion. 
This  lives  out  of  doors  all  winter.  The  bulbs  of  the  winter  onion  grow  in  clusters. 
In  the  early  spring,  sometimes  before  the  snow  is  gone,  these  send  up  their  fresh 
tender  stems.  If  one  of  the  clusters  is  dug  up  and  broken  apart  and  the  bulbs  set 
out  separately  each  will  produce  a  new  cluster. 

LESSON  16.  WILD  FLOWEKS. — Follow  the  lessons  on  the  onion  with  a  brief 
study  of  the  wild  flowers  of  spring.  What  are  some  of  the  earliest  flowers  that 
we  find  in  the  woods?  The  children  may  know  the  hepatica,  violet,  spring  beauty, 
dog-tooth  violet,  Jack-in-the-pulpit,  and  others.  Try  to  have  them  solve  the  prob- 
lem, how  can  the  wild  flowers  send  up  their  flowers  so  early  in  the  spring?  If  wild 
flowers  are  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  dig  up  one  or  two  to  show  the 
children  the  underground  stems.  They  will  find  if  they  dig  deep  enough  that  spring 
beauties  have  tubers  like  potatoes,  the  dog-tooth  violets  have  bulbs  like  onions,  and 
the  violets  have  thick  root  stocks.  What  is  stored  in  all  these  underground  stems? 
(Just  as  the  onion  bulbs  have  food  stored  in  them  that  the  onion  uses  as  it  grows, 
so  the  wild  flowers  the  summer  before  stored  up  plenty  of  food  material  for  the  plant 
to  live  upon  in  the  early  spring.)  What  other  preparation  did  the  onion  make  last 
fall?  You  remember  the  little  shoot  that  is  all  ready  to  grow  the  moment  it  gets  a 
chance?  In  the  same  way  the  wild  flowers  have  their  flower  buds  all  ready  the  sum- 
mer before  so  they  are  ready  to  open  up  at  the  first  indication  of  spring. 

VACATION  STUDIES.— Discuss  with  the  children  how  they  can  care  for  their 
gardens.  All  weeds  should  be  kept  out.  The  soil  should  be  stirred  frequently  even 
if  there  are  no  weeds  to  pull  out.  When  the  flowers  begin  to  blossom  they  should  be 
picked  occasionally.  They  will  blossom  all  the  better  for  this.  In  gathering  flowers 
it  is  better  to  use  a  large  pair  of  shears  and  cut  the  stems  instead  of  breaking  them. 
The  stem  should  be  kept  as  long  as  possible.  Keep  a  record  of  how  many  radishes 
and  how  much  lettuce  you  raise  and  be  ready  to  tell  which  kind  you  think  is  best. 


61 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  FIFTH  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  SEPTEMBER.— (Alternating  with  sixth  year's  ?corfc;  ten  min- 
utes daily,  or,  preferably,  three  longer  periods  each  week.) 

Eei>ort  on  vacation  studies.  Fall  aspect  of  garden.  Harvesting  and  stonng  of 
onions  and  other  underground  plant  parts. 

Grasshoppers;  collect  different  kinds, — locusts,  meadow  grasshoppers,  katydid; 
field  study  to  discover  habits  and  food.  With  specimens  in  cages,  observe  how  much 
one  grasshopper  will  eat  in  one  day,  method  of  breathing,  of  making  sounds.  How 
may  grasshoppers  be  destroyed?  Allies, — crickets,  cockroaches,  walking  sticks. 

i  Nineteen  lessons  planned.) 

EEPORTS  OF  VACATION  STUDIES.  LESSONS  1  AND  2.— The  first  lesson 
should  be  an  informal  discussion  of  the  vacation  work  and  studies.  If  the  children 
have  observed  grasses  and  dandelions  let  each  tell  in  his  own  way  what  he  has  seen. 
When  did  the  bluegrass  blossom?  How  tall  does  the  flowering  stem  grow?  Did 
anyone  find  seeds  on  the  bluograss?  How  can  you  tell  bluegrass  from  timothy?  (If 
possible  the  teacher  should  have  in  class  a  few  dried  heads  of  these  kinds  of  grasses.) 
How  many  observed  the  dandelion  during  the  summer?  Did  it  continue  to  blossom 
during  the  summer  months?  Did  the  leaves  grow  any  taller  in  the  tall  grass  than  in 
the  short  grass  of  the  lawn?  Look  for  dandelion  flowers  now.  Who  discovered 
whether  or  not  dandelion  seeds  grow  the  first  season? 

LESSONS  3  and  4. — Have  the  children  report  on  garden  studies.  How  many 
have  onions  in  the  home  garden  ?  Ask  the  children  to  observe  the  following  and  re- 
port the  next  day.  Have  any  of  the  onions  gone  to  seed?  Have  any  of  the  stems 
little  bulblets  on  the  top?  How  large  are  the  onions  that  were  started  from  seeds 
in  the  spring?  How  large  are  those  that  were  started  from  sets?  (The  teacher  should 
have  in  class  for  the  next  lesson  specimens  of  onions  grown  in  various  ways.)  A  com- 
parative study  should  be  made  of  these.  Discuss  the  harvesting  and  storing  of  onions. 
Encourage  the  children  to  tell  how  the  work  is  done  at  their  homes.  The  following 
rules  should  be  observed  in  harvesting  the  crop.  The  bulbs  should  be  pulled  or  dug 
up  and  left  for  several  days  to  dry.  The  tops  and  roots  should  then  be  cut  off  and 
the  onions  placed  on  the  floor  of  a  barn  pr  crib  or  in  some  dry  place.  They  should 
be  scattered  thinly  on  the  floor  and  not  piled  up.  When  thoroughly  dry  they  may  be 
placed  in  the  cellar  or  basement  for  winter  use.  The  methods  of  storing  other  garden 
plants  for  winter  may  be  discussed.  Are  any  roots  left  in  the  ground  over  winter? 
(Parsnips  and  salsify.)  Discuss  the  care  of  dahlia  roots.  (After  the  first  biting 
frost  they  should  be  dug  up,  dried  and  stored.) 

GRASSHOPPERS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES.— A  few  simple  pieces  of  ap- 
paratus will  aid  in  the  study  of  grasshoppers.  Two  or  three  quart  Mason  jars,  sev- 
eral wide  mouthed  bottles,  a  feAv  jelly  glasses  with  covers-,  a  flower  pot  or  tin  pail 
to  hold  soil,  two  or  three  lamp  chimneys  or  lantern  globes  and  a  wire  cage  or  vivar- 
ium. A  vivarium  is  easily  made.  For  the  foundation  make  a  shallow  box  a  foot  and 
one-half  or  two  feet  long,  six  inches  wide  and  three  inches  deep.  Nail  firmly  in  each 
corner  a  flat  piece  fifteen  inches  high,  about  an  inch  wide,  and  half  an  inch  thick. 
Complete  the  frame  by  nailing  pieces  of  board  to  the  top  of  the  uprights,  covering 
the  sides  with  wire  screen  or  mosquito  netting  and  placing  a  piece  of  board  or  panes 
of  glass  over  the  top.  A  simple  cage  may  be  made  from  an  ordinary  shoe  box.  Cut 
rectangular  pieces  out  of  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  and  sew  in  wire  screening 
or  mosquito  netting.  Tie  a  string  around  the  box  to  keep  the  lid  on.  Stand  it  up  on 
one  side  and  you  may  watch  the  movements  of  the  grasshoppers  within. 

LESSON  5. — Discuss  briefly  with  the  children  where  grasshoppers  are  found. 
Give  them  the  following  points  for  individual  observation  outside  of  school  hours. 
The  study  may  easily  be  done  on  the  way  to  and  from  school.  Watch  to  see  just 
how  the  grasshopper  moves  out  of  your  way.  (It  will  not  be  difficult  for  the  children 
to  see  that  the  movement  is  a  combination  of  flight  and  hop.)  How  do  they  alight? 
Where  do  they  alight?  Do  they  make  any  effort  to  conceal  themselves?  Does  their 
color  help  them  any  in  hiding  from  you?  Bring  a  few  live  grasshoppers  to  school 
tomorrow. 


62 

LESSON  6. — Call  for  reports  upon  the  observation  made  in  the  field.  Place 
some  of  the  live  grasshoppers  in  the  vivarium.  Let  each  child  have  one  in  a  bottle 
or  glass.  Watch  to  see  how  the  hoppers  move  about  in  the  cage  or  glass.  How  many 
legs  have  they?  Are  all  the  legs  the  same  size?  Can  you  find  anything  on  the  feet 
to  keep  the  hoppers  from  slipping  when  they  alight?  How  many  wings  can  you  see? 
Where  are  the  wings  that  you  saw  when  the  insect  was  flying?  Hold  a  grasshopper 
in  the  left  hand  and  with  the  right  thumb  and  finger  gently  lift  one  of  the  outer 
wings  and  notice  how  the  inner  wings  are  folded  like  fans.  What  do  you  think  is 
the  use  of  the  outer  wings?  (These  are  used  for  protection  of  the  more  delicate 
wings  underneath  and  are  of  no  use  for  flight.)  Are  the  outer  wings  any  stronger  or 
firmer  than  the  inner  ones? 

LESSON  7. — The  problem  that  the  children  are  to  solve  today  is  what  and  how 
grasshoppers  eat.  Let  the  children  tell  what  they  think  the  grasshoppers  feed  upon. 
Place  leaves  of  various  kinds  in  the  jars  with  the  insects.  Place  sprays  of  clover, 
grass  and  other  leaves  in  a  small  bottle  of  water  and  set  this  in  the  vivarium.  Let 
the  children  find  out  for  themselves  how  the  grasshoppers  nibble  and  chew  the  leaves. 
Hold  a  grasshopper  in  the  hand  and  place  a  leaf  near  its  mouth.  It  will  soon  begin 
to  nibble  the  leaf.  Have  the  children  watch  carefully  to  see  how  many  parts  of  the 
mouth  they  can  discover  while  the  grasshopper  is  feeding.  (They  will  be  able  to 
make  out  the  flap-like  upper  lip,  the  dark  toothed  jaws  that  move  from  side  to  side 
and  the  four  foot-like  projections  at  the  lower  part  of  the  mouth.  These  projections 
are  called  palps  and  the  lower  pair  is  fastened  to  the  lower  lip.) 

Let  the  children  try  an  experiment  to  see  how  much  one  grasshopper  wil  eat 
in  a  single  day.  Place  one  of  the  insects  in  a  jar  or  glass  and  wdth  it  half  a  dozen 
blades  of  grass.  How  many  blades  are  left  next  morning?  Try  it  on  other  plants, 
clover,  corn.  etc.  Sprinkle  some  water  on  the  leaves  and  see  if  the  grasshoppers  like 
to  drink. 

LESSON  8. — How  does  the  grasshopper  find  out  things?  Can  it  see  you  when 
you  come  near?  Look  on  its  head  for  eyes.  Where  are  they?  How  many  can  you 
find?  If  you  look  closely  you  will  find  three  small  eyes  besides  the  two  large  ones. 
One  of  these  is  in  the  middle  of  the  face  and  one  just  in  front  of  each  large  eye  on 
the  top  of  the  head.  Where  are  the  feelers  or  antennae?  What  do  you  think  the 
antennae  are  for?  Can  the  grasshopper  move  them  around?  Does  it  touch  objects 
with  them?  (The  antennae  are  organs  of  touch.  They  also  contain  the  sense  of 
smell.)  Does  the  grasshopper  act  as  if  it  can  hear?  Eaise  the  wings  and  you  will 
see  the  ear  spots  on  the  back,  one  on  each  side. 

LESSON  9. — Have  the  children  look  for  other  kinds  of  grasshoppers;  among 
others  they  will  probably  find  meadow  grasshoppers.  These  are  slender,  greenish  in- 
sects that  live  on  the  stems  of  weeds,  garden  plants,  and  corn.  They  have  very  long 
hair-like  antennae,  and  often  they  sing  all  day  long,  stopping  only  a  moment  when 
you  approach  too  near.  Place  two  or  three  of  these  in  the  vivarium.  Let  the  chil- 
dren observe  them  a  few  minutes  to  find  in  what  ways  they  differ  from  the  common 
short  horn  grasshopper.  In  the  same  way  let  them  find  in  what  ways  they  resemble 
the  common  grasshopper.  Howr  do  these  insects  make  their  music?  (Leave  this  as 
a  problem  for  the  children  to  solve  by  observation.)  They  will  readily  see  the  almost 
transparent  musical  instrument  at  the  base  of  the  outerwings.  They  will  be  able  to 
see  the  insect  vibrate  this  as  it  makes  its  music. 

LESSON  10.— Do  grasshoppers  live  all  winter?  (No,  they  all  die  in  the  fall.) 
Where  do  all  the  grasshoppers  come  from  the  next  season?  (Grasshoppers  deposit 
their  eggs  the  fall  before  and  these  eggs  hatch  a  new  generation  of  grasshoppers.) 
How  and  where  do  they  lay  their  eggs  ?  To  determine  this  have  the  children  fill  some 
of  the  Mason  jars  about  half  full  of  garden  soil.  Firm  this  down  and  place  one  or 
two  female  grasshoppers  in  each  jar  and  feed  them  well.  You  can  tell  the  female 
grasshopper  by  the  four  projections  at  the  back  part  of  the  abdomen.  These  projec- 
tions form  what  is  called  the  ovipositor  or  egg  placer.  Set  the  jars  aside  for  a  week 
or  more. 

LESSON  11. — We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  something  about  another  relative  of 
the  grasshopper,  the  cricket.  Where  do  crickets  live?  Do  you  find  them  moving 
around  in  the  daytime  as  much  as  grasshoppers  do?  Did  you  ever  lift  up  a  board 
and  find  a  cricket  under  it?  Bring  some  crickets  into  the  schoolroom  and  study  them 


as  you  did  the  meadow  grasshopper.    What  do  crickets  eat?    Put  some  in'a  glass  and 
feed  them  on  various  kinds  of  food.     Watch  to  find  how  they  make  their  music. 

LESSOX  12. — If  you  wish  to  see  some  cricket  eggs,  you  may  easily  induce  the 
cricket  to  deposit  some  for  you.  Fill  some  flower  pots  or  tin  pails  almost  full  of 
soil.  Then  set  a  lamp  chimney  or  lantern  globe  on  top  of  the  soil,  pressing  it  down 
slightly.  Put  the  cricket  inside,  and  tie  a  piece  of  thin  cloth  or  netting  over  the  top 
of  the*  chimney.  Be  sure  to  feed  the  cricket  well.  After  a  number  of  days,  lift  up 
the  lantern  globe  or  chimney  and  you  will  find  in  the  crevice  made  by  the  chimney  the 
interesting  golden  eggs  of  the  cricket. 

LESSOX  13. — Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  relatives  of  the  grass- 
hopper are  the  katydids.  You  may  have  a  hard  time  to  catch  one  of  these,  but  if  you 
keep  eyes  and  ears  open,  you  will  be  sure  to  find  one  before  the  month  is  over.  Put 
it  into  the  vivarium  and  see  how  many  interesting  things  you  can  find  out  about  it. 
Look  carefully  at  the  base  of  the  wings  to  find  the  triangular  musical  instrument. 
Carefully  lift  up  the  outer  wings  to  see  the  beautiful  ones  beneath. 

LESSOX  14. — One  relative  of  the  grasshopper  is  a  very  bad  pest  about  cup- 
boards and  pautries.  This  is  the  cockroach.  Who  has  seen  one  of  these?  WTiat  color 
is  it?  Does  it  have  the  long  hopper  legs  that  the  rest  of  the  family  have?  (This 
insect  has  legs  adapted  for  running  instead  of  hopping.)  What  does  it  eat?  If  any 
of  the  children  know  this  pest,  they  will  be  ready  to  tell  how  it  devours  any  food 
that  it  may  find  about  the  home. 

LESSOX  15. — Examine  the  jars  that  were  set  aside  for  obtaining  the  grass- 
hopper eggs.  The  children  may  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  catch  the  insects 
in  the  act  of  digging  holes  in  the  soil  and  placing  their  eggs  in  these  holes.  Care- 
fully remove  the  soil  from  the  jars,  pouring  it  out  upon  a  plate,  or  some  other  flat 
object.  You  will  find  the  packages  of  eggs  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface.  The 
egg  packages  are  from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length  and  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Carefully  open  one  package  and  study  a  single  egg. 
What  is  the  color  of  the  egg,  its  shape?  Break  apart  one  of  the  packages  and  count 
the  number  of  eggs.  Some  grasshoppers  lay  two  or  three  packages.  Where  do  the 
grasshoppers  that  are  out  doors  place  their  eggs?  (They  are  placed  in  the  ground 
of  the  meadows,  pastures  and  roadsides.)  When  do  these  eggs  hatch?  (Some  of 
them  hatch  quite  early  in  the  spring  if  the  weather  is  warm.  They  may  be  found 
in  the  latter  part  of  March,  others  do  not  hatch  until  April  or  May.) 

LESSOX  16. — How  do  the  young  grasshoppers  differ  from  the  grown-up  ones? 
(While  most  of  the  young  grasshoppers  are  found  in  the  spring  and  early  summer, 
tn'ere  are  always  a  few  belated  ones  that  may  be  found  in  September.)  Have  the 
children  search  for  these  in  the  grasses  of  the  meadows  or  roadsides.  Place  them 
in  the  bottles  for  study  and  feed  them  upon  the  leaves  of  grass  and  clover.  Observe 
them  for  a  few  minutes  to  discover  in  what  ways  they  resemble  the  grown-up  in- 
sects; then  study  them  a  few  minutes  longer  to  find  out  how  they  differ  from  the 
mature  insects.  Find  the  beginnings  of  wings  on  the  backs.  (If  young  grasshoppers 
are  kept  for  a  time,  the  children  may  have  the  pleasure  of  seeing  them  change  into 
the  grown-up  form.)  This  is  done  by  molting.  The  little  grasshoppers  creep  out 
of  their  old  skins,  then  the  wings  unfold  and  grow  acd  the  hoppers  are  grown  up. 

LESSOX  17. — Since  grasshoppers  lay  so  many  eggs  in  the  fall  why  is  it  that 
we  do  not  have  all  of  our  meadows,  pastures,  and  corn  eaten  up  by  them?  (It  is 
because  they  have  so  many  natural  foes.)  Have  the  children  try  to  think  of  some 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  grasshoppers  are  destroyed.  Fall  plowing  often  brings 
the  eggs  to  the  surface,  ^here  they  are  eaten  by  birds  or  other  foes.  Spring  plowing 
destroys  hundreds  of  eggs.  Many  grasshoppers  are  attacked  by  a  fungous  disease 
that  kills  them  by  hundreds  in  the  fall.  Ask  the  children  if  they  have  ever  seen  dead 
grasshoppers  hanging  to  the  tops  of  weeds  and  other  plants?  Whenever  they  find 
one  of  these  grasshoppers  they  may  know  that  it  died  of  this  disease. 

This  is  a  good  time  to  talk  about  the  birds  that  feed  to  a  great  extent  upon 
grasshoppers.  Just  how  much  the  birds  do  to  keep  the  grasshoppers  in  check  is 
difficult  to  estimate.  The  greatest  benefactors  among  the  birds  are  the  meadow 
larks,  quail,  brown  thrasher,  bobolink,  dick  cissel,  and  the  song  and  field  sparrows. 

LESSOXS  18  and  19. — Make  plans  and  arrange  a  program  for  the  Harvest 
home  festival  to  be  held  the  last  Friday  in  the  month. 


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OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  OCTOBER. — Study  of  strawberry  beds  at  home;  report  on  old 
plants,  runners,  new  plants,  care  of  beds  in  ivinter. 

Continuation  study  of  trees,  especially  of  their  autumn  coloration  and  prepara- 
tion for  winter  rest. 

The  mosquito;  collection  of  eggs  and  larvae  or  pupae  from  stagnant  water,  rain 
barrels,  or  pools;  follow  life  history;  experiment  in  killing  young  with  Tcerosene. 
Mosquito  and  malaria. 

(Twenty-one  lessons  planned.) 

MOSQUITOS.  LESSON  I. — Begin  the  work  with  an  informal  discussion  of 
mosquitos  and  their  habits.  The  mosquito  is  so  well  known  that  the  children  will  be 
able  to  draw  upon  their  experiences  for  answers  to  some  of  the  questions.  How  do 
mosquitos  move  about?  How  many  wings  have  they?  (If  the  children  are  in  doubt 
about  this  leave  it  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  later.)  Do  mosquitos  make  any  sound 
as  they  fly?  (The  humming  music  is  made  by  the  rapid  movement  of  their  wings.) 
When  are  mosquitos  most  active,  during  the  daylight  or  darkness?  Who  knows 
where  they  stay  during  the  daytime?  (They  hang  on  the  ceilings  of  rooms,  in  sheds, 
barns  and  other  buildings,  and  on  twigs  and  the  undersides  of  the  leaves  of  trees 
and  other  plants.)  What  do  they  eat?  (The  children  will,  of  course,  say  that  they 
feed  upon  the  blood  of  human  beings  and  other  warm  blooded  animals.  This  is  true, 
only  in  part.  Mosquitos  live  very  largely  upon  the  juices  of  plants,  only  a  few  ever 
have  a  chance  to  suck  the  blood  of  animals.  It  may  be  interesting  to  know  that  only 
the  females  bite.  The  males,  if  they  feed  at  all,  simply  sip  liquid  foods,  such  as 
fruit  juices,  water,  etc.)  How  many  have  ever  seen  young  mosquitoes?  (Ask  the 
children  to  look  in  rainbarrels  and  other  vessels  of  standing  water  for  wriggle  tails  or 
wrigglers,  the  young  mosquitos.)  Some  may  find  mosquito  eggs  as  well  as  wrigglers. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  little  clusters  that  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  like  bits  of 
soap.  These  will  be  found  in  the  early  morning.  In  very  warm  weather,  the  eggs 
that  are  laid  early  in  the  morning,  hatch  into  wrigglers  by  noon,  or  at  least  before 
the  middle  of  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day. 

LESSON  2. — Place  the  wrigglers  in  a  number  of  glass  tumblers  or  wide  mouthed 
bottles.  Each  child  should  have  one.  Let  the  children  observe  them  in  the  water. 
(The  children  may  be  told  that  the  young  mosquito  as  well  as  the  young  of  many 
other  insects  are  called  larvae,  one  is  a  larva.)  How  do  the  mosquito  larvae  move 
through  the  water?  Can  you  find  a  head  and 'tail  end?  How  do  they  place  them- 
selves when  at  rest  in  the  wrater?  (Most  of  them  hang  head  downward,  making  an 
angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees  with  the  surface  of  the  water.  Others  may  plaSe 
themselves  almost  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  If  any  of  the  latter  are  found, 
the  children  should  know  that  these  are  larvae  of  the  malaria  mosquito,  while  the 
others  are  the  common  culex  mosquitos.)  Does  the  tail  come  above  the  surface  of  the 
water?  What  is  the  purpose  of  this?  What  must  all  animals  do  in  order  to  live? 
(Among  other  things,  the  children  wil  be  sure  to  mention  the  fact  that  animals  must 
breathe.  This  tube  near  the  end  of  the  body  is  placed  above  the  water,  so  that  the 
larva  may  breathe  air.)  Tie  a  piece  of  cheese  cloth  over  the  glass  and  set  it  aside 
until  the  next  day. 

LESSON  3. — Continue  the  observation  of  the  larvae.  Can  you  find  the  eyes  or 
feelers  on  the  wrigglers?  Look  closely  at  the  body  and  report  what  you  see.  Is  it  in 
one  piece?  Are  there  any  projections  of  any  kind  upon  it?  Do  the  wrigglers  move 
downward  in  the  same  way  that  they  move  upward?  Jar  the  glass  and  watch  them. 
Do  they  remain  at  the  bottom  very  long?  What  do  they  eat?  (The  children  will 
probably  not  be  able  to  answer  this  question  accurately  from  observation,  although 
they  may  see  some  movement  of  the  jaws.  The  larvae  eat  tiny  one-celled  plants  and 
animals  that  are  floating  about  in  the  water.  Again  cover  the  glass  and  set  it  aside 
for  two  or  three  days  before  continuing  the  study.) 

LESSON  4. — With  the  glasses  again  before  the  children,  look  to  see  whether 
any  of  the  larvae  have  changed  in  form.  What  changes  have  occurred?  (Many  of 
the  larvae  have  changed  to  pupae.  A  pupa  is  dark  in  color  with  a  thick  round  portion 
at  the  front  of  the  body  arid  a  slender  segmented  abdomen.)  Do  the  pupae  move  in 
the  water  as  the  larvae  did?  Do  they  breathe  by  sticking  the  tube  near  their  tails 
out  of  the  water?  (By  looking  closely  the  children  will  see  that  these  little  creatures 


65 

rest  with  the  rounded  portion  of  their  backs  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  will 
also  be  able  to  discover  two  breathing  tubes  on  the  back.)  Do  the  pupae  seem  to 
have  mouths  as  the  larvae  have?  (The  pupae  have  no  mouths,  so  although  they  are 
active,  they  do  not  eat  anything.)  Again  set  the  glasses  aside,  but  tell  the  children 
to  watch  them  from  day  to  day  and  report  any  changes  that  they  may  see. 

LESSOX  5. — In  a  few  days  the  children  will  find  that  the  pupae  have  changed 
into  grown-up  mosquitos.  Look  for  the  pupae  skins  floating  upon  the  water.  (The 
mosquitos  rest  on  these  skins  while  their  wings  are  developing  and  drying.)  Have 
the  children  observe  the  grown-up  mosquitos  to  see  how  many  things  they  can  find 
out  about  them.  This  is  the  time  to  settle  the  problem  as  to  the  number  of  wings. 
(The  children  may  be  told  that  all  insects  having  but  two  wings  are  placed  in  one 
great  group  called  dipters.  They  will  know  that  the  house  fly  must  be  a  relative  of 
the  mosquito.) 

LESSOX  6. — How  may  we  get  rid  of  mosquitos?  Let  the  children  suggest 
methods?  How  many  mosquitos  breed  in  a  single  rainbarrel  during  the  summer? 
Sometimes  broken  jars  and  old  pails  are  left  standing  around  in  the  back  yards. 
These  catch  rain  water  and  become  the  breeding  places  of  hundreds  of  mosquitos. 
If  everyone  in  the  neighborhood  should  u?e  care  in  keeping  rainbarrels  screened  and 
in  not  alowing  rain  water  to  stand  anywhere  in  the  yards,  the  number  of  mosquitos 
would  be  greatly  reduced.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  kerosene  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  a  jar  in  which  there  are  a  number  of  larvae  and  pupae.  Examine  them  the  next 
day.  Why  does  this  kill  the  wrigglers?  (Since  the  oil  spreads  out  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  wrigglers  must  pierce  this  film  of  oil,  in  order  to  breathe.)  This 
method  is  employed  in  many  places  where  there  are  shallow  ponds  and  undrained 
swamps. 

LESSON  7. — What  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  we  wish  to  get  rid  of  mos- 
quitos? The  children  should  be  told  something  of  the  work  of  the  malaria  mosquito. 
They  have  already  noticed  the  difference  between  the  larvae  of  the  common  mosquito 
and  the  malaria  mosquito.  The  grown-up  malaria  mosquito  differs  from  the  com- 
mon one  in  having  smoky  spots  on  the  wings,  which  may  readily  be  detected  at  close 
range.  Scientists  have  discovered  that  all  malarial  diseases,  such  as  ague,  chills  and 
fever,  and  malaria  fever,  are  contracted  only  through  the  bites  of  malaria  mosquitos. 
The  cause  of  the  disease  is  the  growth  and  development  of  tiny  one-celled  animals 
which  are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  without  the  aid  of  a  powerful  micro- 
scope. These  small  animals  develop  in  and  feed  upon  the  red  blood  corpuscles.  They 
multiply  very  rapidly  in  the  blood.  When  a  mosquito  bites  a  human  being  that  has 
these  tiny  cells  in  the  blood,  some  of  them  are  sucked  into  the  stomach  of  the  mos- 
quito. Here  they  pass  through  another  stage  of  their  development,  producing  a  great 
number  of  new  cells  differing  somewhat  in  shape  from  those  that  were  taken  into 
the  stomach  of  the  mosquito.  These  pass  out  of  the  stomach  into  the  blood  of  the 
mosquito,  and  many  of  them  enter  the  salivary  glands  When  a  mosquito  bites  a  per- 
son some  of  these  cells  pass  from  its  mouth  into  the  blood  and  these  start  the  ma- 
laria disease.  As  far  as  we  know,  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  people  may  become 
infected  with  malarial  diseases,  so  you  see  if  all  malaria  mosquitoes  were  killed  off,  it 
would  mean  that  no  one  would  ever  have  any  of  these  diseases. 

LESSOX  8. — Since  mosquitos  are  such  annoying  pests,  we  shall  be  glad  to  know 
that  they  have  many  natural  foes,  that  help  to  keep  them  in  check.  How  many  of  the 
children  know  the  dragon  fly?  It  is  sometimes  called  the  snake  feeder  and  snake 
doctor.  This  as  it  flies  around  through  the  air  feeds  almost  wholly  upon  mosquitos. 
Some  people  even  call  it  the  mosquito  hawk,  because  it  destroys  *so  many  of  these 
pests.  Young  dragon  flies  live  in  the  water  in  ponds  and  pools,  and  feed  largely 
upon  mosquito  larvae.  The  larvae  have  other  foes  also  in  the  water,  among  which 
are  the  water  beetles,  giant  water  bugs,  and  tadpoles.  There  are  certain  birds  also 
that  feed  upon  the  grown-up  mosquitos,  among  which  are  the  fly  catchers  and  chim- 
ney swifts. 

STRAWBERRY.  LESSOX  9.— How  many  of  the  children  have  strawberry 
beds  at  home?  When  were  the  plants  set  out!  Did  they  bear  fruit  last  summer*? 
Tell  the  children  to  look  at  their  strawberry  plants  and  be  able  to  answer  the  fol- 
lowing questions:  Are  the  plants  grouped  together  or  do  they  stand  singly  upon 
the  ground?  How  do  they  spread?  Find  one  of  the  oldest  plants  and  look  for  run- 
ners. How  many  runners  can  you  find  growing  from  one  plant?  How  long  do  the 


66 

runners  become  before  they  send  out  shoots  and  roots?  How  many  shoots  do  you 
find  attached  to  one  runner?  Look  in  the  center  of  the  plant  to  see  if  new  leaves  are 
still  being  produced.  What  is  the  habit  of  growth  of  one  plant?  Does  it  have  an 
erect  stem  or  does  it  spread  out  flat  upon  the  ground  or  is  it  in  the  form  of  a 
rosette  ? 

LESSON  10. — For  this  lesson  the  teacher  should  have  in  class  at  least  one  en- 
tire strawberry  plant  with  roots  and  runners  still  attached?  Call  for  reports  of 
the  home  study.  Verify  the  statements  made  by  the  children  by  observing  the  speci- 
men in  class.  Note  carefully  the  relationship  of  the  roots  to  the  rosette  of  leaves. 
Note  the  number  and  length  of  the  roots.  Ask  the  children  to  notice  the  plants  oc- 
casionally to  determine  whether  or  not  the  frosts  have  any  effect  upon  the  leaves. 

TREES.  LESSON  II. — If  trees  were  studied  in  the  spring  term,  let  the  first 
lesson  consist  of  reports  of  the  spring  and  vacation  observations.  If  no  work  has 
been  done  before,  then  begin  by  asking  the  children  to  make  a  list  of  the  different 
kinds  of  trees  they  have  in  their  yards  at  home.  If  there  are  trees  in  the  school 
yard,  begin  with  simple  observations  of  these  following  the  outlines  suggested  in 
April  of  the  fourth  year. 

LESSON  .12. — Have  some  twigs  of  the  trees  you  are  using  as  type  studies  in 
school.  Let  each  child  lay  the  twig  down  on  the  desk,  spread  out  the  leaves.  Do 
the  leaves  overlap  ?  Are  the  leaves  all  the  same  size  ?  Are  the  stems  the  same  length  ? 
Can  you  tell  where  the  youngest  leaves  on  the  twigs  are?  Examine  the  twigs  to  de- 
termine how  much  they  have  grown  this  year.  How  can  you  tell?  (The  children 
will  find  on  the  twig  some  ring  scars.  These  rings  show  the  beginning  of  the  year's 
growth.)  How  many  years'  growth  does  your  twig  represent?  Compare  a  number 
of  twigs  from  different  kinds  of  trees  as  to  the  growth  twigs  have  made  during 
the  season.  This  will  make  an  interesting  observation  lesson  outside  of  school  hours. 

LESSON  13. — The  problem  of  this  lesson  is  to  find  out  what  preparation  trees 
are  making  for  the  resting  season.  Examine  a  number  of  twigs.  What  do  you  find 
on  them  besides  leaves?  Where  are  the  buds  situated?  (A  bud  that  is  found  between 
the  stem  of  a  leaf  and  the  twig  is  said  to  be  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf.)  Is  there  a 
bud  in  the  axil  of  every  leaf?  In  what  other  place  on  the  twig  do  you  find  buds? 
(The  buds  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs  are  called  terminal  buds.) 

LESSON  14. — Are  any  of  the  leaves  beginning  to  change  color?  What  colors 
are  prominent?  What  trees  have  the  most  brilliant  colors?  Which  ones  are  almost 
all  yellow?  Watch  to  see  whether  there  are  some  trees  whose  leaves  simply  die  and 
turn  brown  without  having  any  bright  colors.  Examine  several  leaves  to  see  if  there 
is  any  portion  of  the  leaf  that  stays  green  longer  than  the  rest.  What  is  the  chief 
work  of  the  leaf?  (The  chief  work  of  all  leaves  is  to  manufacture  food  for  the 
rest  of  the  plant.  In  the  fall  the  plant  gradually  ceases  to  make  food.  As  the  work 
stops  the  green  coloring  matter  in  the  leaves  fade,  becoming  a  bright  yellow.  Cer- 
tain chemical  changes  take  place  also  as  the  leaves  stop  work,  which  causes  the  bril- 
liant reds,  purples,  etc.)  What  else  do  trees  do  to  get  ready  for  the  next  season? 
The  children  will  probably  state  that  they  drop  their  leaves.  Have  the  children  ob- 
serve different  trees  to  find  out  which  ones  drop  their  leaves  first. 

LESSON  15. — Beport  on  the  observation  made  on  the  dropping  of  the  leaves. 
Why  do  the  leaves  drop  off?  (Have  several  twigs  in  the  room  for  observation.) 
Touch  gently  some  of  the  leaves.  Do  they  drop  off  easily?  Look  at  the  scar  left 
on  the  twig.  Can  you  see  why  the  leaf  could  hold  on  no  longer?  (A  thin  layer  of  bark 
has  grown  on  the  twig  under  the  stem  of  the  leaf  and  severed  its  connection  with  the 
twig.)  The  trees  have  been  doing  something  else  in  preparation  for  the  resting  sea- 
son that  the  children  cannot  see.  They  have  been  storing  food  made  by  the  leaves. 
The  food  is  stored  in  the  roots,  stems,  and  twigs.  What  will  the  trees  do  with  this 
food  next  spring?  They  will,  of  course,  use  it  in  starting  the  growth  of  the  buds, 
the  new  leaves  and  flowers.  Have  the  children  make  a  list  of  all  the  things  that 
trees  do  to  prepare  for  their  resting  season  and  for  their  renewal  of  growth  next 
spring. 

CARE  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED.  LESSON  16.— Have  the  children  re- 
port on  any  observation  of  the  strawberry  plants  since  the  last  season.  Has  the 
frost  had  any  effect  on  the  leaves?  Do  strawberry  plants  die  in  the  winter?  Does 
the  entire  plant  live  over  winter?  WTiat  do  we  call  plants  that  live  from  year  to 


67 

year?  (They  are  perennials.  Trees  and  shrubs  are  perennials.  Many  herbs  are 
perennials,  although  the  part  above  ground  dies  in  the  winter  while  the  roots  and 
underground  stems  continue  to  live.  The  strawberry  is  an  herb.  It  does  not  have 
much  wood  in  its  stem ;  in  fact,  as  we  remember  from  our  study  of  the  plant,  it  has 
very  short  stems,  so  that  the  leaves  are  attached  very  close  to  the  roots.)  Do  you 
know  whether  any  of  the  strawberry  leaves  remain  green  over  winter?  Leave  this 
as  a  problem  to  be  solved  later  in  the  term.  How  may  we  care  for  our  strawberry 
plants  in  order  to  keep  them  in  good  condition  for  next  spring?  Let  the  children 
tell  what  is  done  in  their  homes.  (The  plants  should  be  covered  with  straw,  corn 
stalks,  or  leaves.  This  is  called  mulching  the  plants.)  Why  do  we  cover  the  plants? 
The  children  may  think  that  it  is  to  keep  the  plants  warm.  This  is  not  the  main 
object,  however,  but  to  keep  the  temperature  even  and  prevent  the  ground  from  freez- 
ing and  thawing,  which  is  likely  to  lift  the  plants  slightly  above  the  surface.  The 
mulching  also  prevents  the  plants  from  starting  to  grow  when  a  few  warm  days  come 
in  the  middle  of  winter,  or  very  early  in  the  spring.  If  they  start  to  grow  and  the 
weather  turns  cold  suddenly,  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  injured.  When  should  the 
mulching  be  applied?  (It  is  best  to  wait  until  the  ground  is  slightly  frozen  before 
-the  mulching  is  put  on  the  bed.) 

NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  NOVEMBER.  BIENNIALS. — Turnip  or  beet  as  type.  Eoot 
and  leaves  of  plants  grown  from  seeds  in  the  spring.  Eoots,  stems,  leaves  and  seeds 
of  plants  that  have  grown  from  the  roots  that  were  set  out  in  the  spring.  Uses  of 
storage  of  food.  Value  to  man.  Sugar  beet  industry.  Comparative  study  of  other 
biennials. 

Fiber  plants.  If  possible  find  some  help  plants.  Study  fibers.  Note  strength; 
similar  study  of  button  weed  or  butter  print.  Compare  flax  and  cotton.  Uses  of  fibers, 
cloths,  ropes,  etc. 

Kind  of  knots.  Make  a  summary  of  the  work  done  upon  the  farm  during  the 
fall  months.  What  have  the  children  done? 

LESSON  PLANS— BIENNIALS.— The  general  thought  of  the  study  of  bien- 
nials is:  (a)  That  the  pupils  may  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  advantage  to  the  plant 
of  this  habit  of  growth;  (b)  Value  of  cultivated  biennials  to  man. 

Use  the  turnip  as  a  type  study.  Informal  discussion  of  the  raising  of  turnips 
in  the  neighborhood.  When  were  the  seeds  planted?  How  were  they  planted?  Are 
the  leaves  still  green?  Is  this  plant  a  rapid  or  slow  grower? 

For  the  second  lesson  have  in  class  several  turnips,  the  entire  plant.  What  parts 
do  you  find  in  the  plant?  (The  children  will  find  the  round  roots  with  long  slender 
part  at  the  lower  end.)  Do  you  find  any  fibrous  roots  attached  to  this  slender  por- 
tion? What  do  you  think  is  the  use  of  these  small  roots?  Cut  the  round  part  of 
the  root  in  two  across  the  middle.  How  many  distinct  structures  do  you  find?  (The 
large  central  portion  is  called  the  central  cylinder.  The  outside  layer  that  sep- 
arates easily  from  the  center  is  the  cortex.) 

Has  the  turnip  any  stem  or  are  the  leaves  fastened  directly  to  the  roots?  Look 
closely  and  you  will  find  that  the  root  narrows  at  the  top  into  a  very  short  thick 
stem  to  which  the  leaves  are  fastened.  Note  the  number  of  leaves.  Are  the  leaves 
harsh  or  soft?  Do  you  know  any  farm  animals  that  like  to  eat  turnip  leaves?  Exam- 
ine some  seeds  of  the  turnip.  What  other  seeds  do  they  resemble?  (Cabbage,  radish, 
and  mustard.)  Where  are  the  turnip  seeds  borne?  Has  any  one  ever  seen  the  seeds 
growing  on  a  turnip  plant?  (It  is  not  probable  that  many  have  seen  the  turnip  plant 
in  flower  and  fruit.  If  you  wish  to  get  flowers  you  must  save  some  turnip  roots  and 
set  them  out  next  spring.)  Who  knows  what  they  will  do?  They  will  grow  rapidly, 
send  up  tall  stems  with  many  branches  resembling  radish  stems  when  its  flowers. 
Soon  the  rather  pretty  yellow  flowers  will  appear  and  these  will  be  followed  by 
pods  similar  to  radish  pods  and  in  the  pods  are  the  seeds.  How  many  seasons,  then, 
does  it  take  for  the  turnip  to  produce  its  seeds?  Any  plant  that  grows  from  the 
seed  one  year  and  produces  flowers  and  seeds  the  second  year  is  called  a  biennial. 
Do  you  know  what  the  word  biennial  means?  (Bi  means  two,  and  enial  is  the  same 
as  annual,  meaning  year.) 

If  you  should  examine  the  root  of  the  turnip  after  the  plant  has  started  to 
blossom  what  do  you  think  you  would  find?  Have  you  ever  cut  open  a  radish  root 


68 

after  the  plant  has  gone  to  seed?  If  you  have  you  know  that  almost  all  the  food 
has  disappeared.  Nothing  is  left  but  the  skin  and  some  hard  fibers.  What  has  be- 
come of  the  rest  of  it?  Little  by  little  the  plant  used  up  the  food  that  was  stored  in 
the  root  to  produce  the  flower  and  seed.  You  see  then  that  the  habit  of  this  plant 
is  to  spend  its  energy  the  first  year  in  storing  up  a  vast  supply  of  food  in  the  root. 
The  second  year  this  food  is  used  up  in  order  that  the  seeds  may  be  produced  quickly. 
We,  of  course,  take  advantage  of  this  fact  and  use  the  stored  up  food  for  ourselves 
or  our  stock. 

Have  the  children  name  all  of  the  other  biennials  that  they  know.  (Beet, 
parsnip,  carrot,  rutabaga,  salsify.)  Of  these  the  beet  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant. Make  a  comparative  study  of  the  beet  and  turnip.  Have  some  of  the 
children  tell  the  life  history  of  the  beet,  starting  with  the  seed  and  carrying  it  thru 
the  first  season  and  then  the  second  season  until  the  flower  and  seed  are  produced. 

Name  the  uses  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  biennials.  If  possible  make  a 
detailed  study  of  the  sugar  beet  and  sugar  beet  industry. 

FIBEB  PLANTS. — In  the  study  of  fiber  plants  find  some  hemp  or  butter 
print.  Have  in  class  also  some  cotton  and  if  possible  some  flax.  See  if  you  can 
separate  the  fibers  of  the  bark  from  the  hemp  sttem.  Test  the  strength  of  the  fibers. 
Compare  the  strength  of  the  hemp  fibers  with  that  of  the  butter  print.  Name  all 
the  plants  that  you  know  that  produce  fibers,  that  are  strong  and  fine  and  that  are 
of  use  to  man. 

What  is  the  special  value  of  the  hemp  fiber?  Eopes  are  made  from  this.  Make 
a  special  study  of  ropes  and  cords  of  various  kinds.  Have  the  children  bring  differ- 
ent kinds  of  ropes  and  cords  to  school.  Study  them  carefully  to  see  how  they  are 
made.  Note  the  number  of  fibers  used  and  the  number  of  strands  in  one  rope.  Dis- 
cuss the  uses  of  ropes  and  cords  about  the  home.  See  how  many  different  kinds  of 
knots  you  can  tie. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBEE.  — //  possible  have  a  gold  fish  or  minnow  in  an 
aquarium  or  glass  jar  in  the  school  room.  Locomotion,  use  of  tail,  fin,  of  other  fins. 
How  fish  breathe,  feed,  covering  of  the  body.  How  they  find  out  things;  how  they 
spend  the  winter,  common  kinds  of  fish  in  Illinois.  Fishing  industry. 

Modern  conveniences  in  the  home — kitchen,  laundry,  cellar,  bath,  vacuum 
cleaner,  etc.  Recognition  of  different  kinds  of  metal;  source,  qualities,  uses,  values 
of  each. 

The  floor,  carpets,  rugs,  hardwood;  care  of  floors;  dangers  and  treatment  of 
dust.  Kind  of  hardwood  used  in  the  home;  identification  of  samples. 

A  model  farm  house. 

Simple  chemistry  of  cleaning;  make  soap;  solvents  for  grease,  paint,  etc.  Nature 
and  uses  of  lye. 

LESSON  PLANS — FISH. — It  is  suggested  that  the  study  of  fish  be  em- 
phasized most  in  parts  of  the  state  where  fishing  constitutes  one  of  the  industries. 
Something  should  be  done  with  fish,  however,  in  any  part  of  the  state.  A  large 
jar  or  fish  bowl  with  a  gold  fish,  a  minnow,  or  some  other  small  fish  should  be  kept 
in  the  schoolroom. 

Have  the  children  attempt  to  solve  the  .following  problems  by  observations  of 
the  living  fish.  How  it  moves  thru  the  water.  What  fins  are  used  most.  Shape 
of  the  fish.  Number  of  fins.  How  the  fish  eats.  How  it  breathes.  How  it  finds  out 
things,  noting  eyes  and  nostrils. 

Have  the  children  make  a  list  of  different  kinds  of  fish  that  they  know.  What 
kinds  are  found  in  the  streams  and  lakes  of  the  neighborhood?  How  are  fish  caught? 
Discuss  kind  of  bait  used.  What  is  the  use  of  the  seine?  Of  different  kinds  of  net? 
Discuss  the  value  of  fish  in  Illinois.  Reference  may  be  made  here  to  the  geography. 
Are  any  laws  made  to  protect  fish  and  the  fishing  industry  of  our  state? 

Spend  one  lesson  in  talking  about  how  fish  spend  the  winter.  The  children  may 
not  know  that  some  fish,  like  insects,  are  inactive  during  cold  weather.  They  settle 
down  in  the  leaves  and  other  trash  in  the  bottom  of  the  pond  and  stay  there  until 
spring,  eating  scarcely  anything.  Some  fish  dig  little  excavations  in  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pond  or  stream.  Usually  two  or  three  huddle  together  in  the 
hollow  and  spend  the  winter  there.  Most  of  the  large  fish  seek  the  deeper  portions  of 


69 

the  water  \vhere  the  temperature  is  not  very  low  and  remain  somewhat  active  during 
the  cold  months  altho  probably  none  of  them  are  as  active  or  eat  as  much  as  they  do 
during  the  summer. 

THE  MODERX  HOME. — The  purpose  of  the  lesson  on  the  modern  home  is  to 
form  ideals  in  the  minds  of  the  children  of  what  convenient  and  sanitary  homes  are. 
The  lessons  may  be  few  or  many,  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  Discuss  the  vari- 
ous rooms  that  should  be  found  in  a  model  farmhouse.  What  conveniences  should 
the  kitchen  have?  Mention  the  sink,  soft  and  hard  water,  etc.  Discuss  the  location 
of  the  laundry.  How  many  have  seen  a  laundry  arranged  in  the  basement  with  sta- 
tionary tubs?  What  things  should  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  cellar?  Does 
any  of  the  air  from  the  basement  or  cellar  get  into  any  of  the  other  rooms  of  the 
home?  If  this  is  true,  then  should  we  see  that  the  cellar  always  has  fresh  air  in  it 
and  that  vegetables  should  not  be  allowed  to  decay  as  they  sometimes  do  in  the  cellar? 
How  is  water  supplied  to  various  parts  of  the  home? 

Who  has  seen  a  vacuum  cleaner?  How  is  the  dust  collected?  Why  is  the  use  of 
this  more  sanitary  than  stirring  up  dust  with  a  broom  ? 

If  practical  spend  two  or  three  lesson  periods  discussing  the  different  methods 
of  treating  the  floors  of  our  homes.  Who  uses  rugs?  Wlio  has  carpets?  Which  is 
likely  to  collect  and  retain  the  greater  amount  of  dust?  Who  has  painted  floors? 
Discuss  the  use  of  linoleum  in  lieu  of  hardwood  floors?  Xame  some  kinds  of  hard 
wood  used  for  floors.  (Hard  pine,  oak.) 

Find  in  farm  papers  some  pictures  giving  examples  of  model  farm  houses  and 
their  equipment. 

METALS. — Look  about  the  house  for  various  kinds  of  metal  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  house  itself  and  articles  used  in  the  house.  Make  a  list  of  these  and 
discuss  the  uses  of  each.  Of  all  of  these  which  do  you  think  is  the  most  useful?  Iron, 
no  doubt  is  the  most  useful  of  all  our  metals.  Xame  the  various  things  used  in  the 
home  that  are  made  of  iron  or  steel;  name  other  things  about  the  farm  used  outside 
of  the  home. 

Discuss  the  special  character  of  each  metal  that  makes  it  valuable  for  the  spe- 
cial purpose  for  which  it  is  used.  For  example,  why  is  copper  better  for  boilers 
than  iron?  Why  is  silver  better  for  spoons  and  forks  than  some  of  the  other 
metals,  etc  ? 

JANUARY  AND  FEBRUARY 

OUTLIXE  FOR  JAXUARY.— Physiology.  Food.  Why  we  need  food— sources, 
classes,  make  collection  of  different  kinds,  as  starch,  sugar,  protied,  oils,  salt.  Sim- 
ple tests  for  starch. 

Parts  of  the  digestive  system.  Review  briefly  teeth  as  studied  in  the  fourth  year. 
Fluids  that  help  prepare  the  food  in  the  mouth,  stomach,  intestine. 

Methods  and  value  of  cooking  foods.    Care  of  foods.    How  to  eat  to  keep  well. 

Disease  germs  that  enter  the  body  thru  the  mouth.  What  to  do  to  prevent  some 
of  these  diseases.  A  simple  but  clear  idea  of  how  germs  cause  diseases.  Effect  of 
alcohol  and  tobacco  upon  digestion. 

LESSOX  PLAXS. — Depend  largely  upon  the  physiology  text  for  facts  in  con- 
nection with  the  month's  work.  Make  the  lessons  as  practical  as  possible  especially 
the  methods  of  cooking  foods,  and  how  to  care  for  foods  that  they  may  be  whole- 
some. 

OUTLIXE  FOR  FEBRUARY.— Physiology.  Respiration.  Simple  study  of  the 
composition  of  air.  Organs  of  respiration,  position,  breathing  movements.  Differ- 
ence between  inspired  and  expired  air.  How  much  air  we  need.  How  we  should 
breathe.  Review  ventilation  of  home  and  school. 

Diseases  that  enter  the  body  thru  the  breathing  organs — tuberculosis,  pneu- 
monia, colds.  What  ice  may  do  to  prevent  these  diseases — cleanliness,  sunlight,  dis- 
infectants. 

Plans  to  observe  health  day. 

LESSOX  PLAXS. — Discuss  the  air  of  the  school  room.  What  are  the  char- 
acteristics of  air?  Can  it  be  felt?  Seen?  Heard?  What  is  it  made  of?  The 
children  should  know  that  air  is  a  mixture  of  invisible  gases.  About  four-fifths 


70 

of  it  is  nitrogen,  nearly  one-fifth  oxygen,  and  a  small  portion  is  carbon  dioxide  and 
water  vapor.  Oxygen  is  the  important  part  of  the  air,  that  is,  important  because  we 
cannot  live  without  a  good  supply  of  oxygen.  Put  a  small  piece  of  candle  upon  a 
table  and  light  it.  Now  place  a  glass  jar  over  this.  What  happens  in  a  few  minutes? 
Why  does  the  candle  flame  go  out?  Because  the  oxygen  in  the  air  is  used  up  by  the 
burning  candle. 

Study  the  organs  of  respiration  from  your  physiology  and  try  to  locate  each  of 
them  in  your  own  body. 

Arrange  a  program  for  health  day.  Invite  the  parents  in  and  let  the  children 
read  papers  or  talk  about  the  work  in  hygiene  that  they  have  covered  during  the 
month. 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOE  MARCH. — Condition  of  plants  at  close  of  winter.  Make  careful 
survey  of  condition  of  all  garden  plants,  flowering  plants,  trees,  shrubs. 

Blue  grass  in  lawns  and  pastures.  Does  it  live  over  winter?  Study  sod  indoors, 
find  underground  stem  (root  stock),  roots,  shoots.  How  does  it  spread?  Why  is  it  a 
good  lawn  and  pasture  grass?  Seeds,  sow  some  indoors.  Care  of  lawn,  preparation, 
rolling,  mowing,  etc. 

Plan  and  build  a  hotbed  and  cold  frame.  Study  seed  catalogs  and  send  for 
see'dd  to  plant  in  hot  bed  or  cold  frame;  cabbage,  celery,  Tcohl  rabi,  \cauliftower, 
pinks,  pansies,  gaillardia. 

Continue  study  of  strawberry  plants.  Set  out  new  plants. 

LIFE  IN  WATEE. — Frogs'  eggs,  toads,  insects,  water  beetles,  dragon  fly, 
nymphs,  etc.  Special  study  of  the  toad  and\  its  relation  to  man. 

LESSON  PLANS. — Make  a  careful  study  of  plants  in  the  yard,  garden  and 
fields.  Which  ones  have  lived  over  winter?  Decide  which  ones  have  remained  green 
over  winter  and  which  ones  have  lived  only  in  the  ground.  Are  there  any  trees  be- 
ginning to  show  signs  of  life,  or  of  beginning  their  work?  Any  shrubs? 

BLUE  GRASS.  LESSON  8. — Begin  with  an  informal  discussion  of  the  various 
places  the  children  have  seen  grass  growing  this  spring.  (On  the  lawn,  the  school- 
yard, the  pasture,  and  roadside.)  Have  the  children  study  the  grass  in  the  school 
yard.  This  may  be  done  as  class  work,  or  the  children  may  make  the  observation 
outside  of  school  hours.  If  practicable,  some  of  the  children  may  be  sent  out  to 
make  observations  during  their  study  periods.  Note  the  condition  of  the  grass  at  this 
time.  What  indications  have  you  that  it  has  lived  all  winter?  Upon  looking  closely 
the  children  will  find  many  green  leaves  close  to  the  ground.  Some  of  the  leaves 
will  be  half  green  and  half  dead.  Have  weather  conditions  had  anything  to  do  with 
the  number  of  leaves  that  have  remained  green? 

LESSON  9. — Compare  the  grass  that  is  found  growing  on  a  southern  slope 
with  that  on  a  northern  or  western  slope.  If  the  children  find  a  spot  where  no  green 
leaves  are  visible,  leave  with  them  the  problem  whether  or  not  the  entire  plant  is 
dead.  Let  them  watch  the  spot  occasionally  until  they  are  convinced  that  new  plants 
are  springing  up.  Wfcat  makes  it  possible  for  the  plant  to  do  this? 

LESSONS  10  AND  11. — Dig  up  a  small  sod  of  bluegrass,  wash  all  the  soil  from 
the  roots,  keep  it  moist,  and  bring  it  into  the  schoolroom  for  study.  Examine  the 
portion  of  the  sod  that  grew  above  ground.  Can  you  make  out  individual  plants? 
How  are  these  related  to  one  another?  Are  they  far  apart  or  close  together?  Look  at 
the  part  that  grew  in  the  ground.  How  many  distinct  structures  do  you  find?  Dis- 
tinguish the  mass  of  small  thread-like  roots  from  the  underground  stem  or  slender 
rootstock.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  rootstock  during  a  severe  winter?  The 
plants  above  ground  may  be  dead,  but  the  rootstock  will  still  live  and  have  its  bud 
all  ready  to  send  up  a  new  shoot  when  warm  weather  comes.  It  enables  the  plant 
to  spread  over  a  larger  area.  It  helps  to  tide  over  a  dry  season  as  well  as  a  cold  one. 
Have  you  noticed  that  the  pasture  sometimes  becomes  almost  dead  in  the  latter  part 
of  summer?  When  the  fall  rains  come,  what  does  it  do?  How  can  it  spring  up  again 
so  quickly?  The  rootstock  with  its  buds  was  live  and  began  to  grow  as  soon  as  it 
could  get  enough  moisture. 

OUT-OF-SCHOOL  WOEK :— PBOPAGATION.  What  ways  are  there  of  start- 
ing bluegrass  on  the  lawns  or  in  pastures?  By  sods  and  by  seeds.  If  good  sod  can 


71 

be  obtained  this  is  the  quickest  way  to  get  a  lawn,  but  the  commonest  way  is  to  plant 
seed.  Have  the  children  plant  a  few  seeds  in  a  box  in  the  schoolroom,  or  better  in 
the  schoolyard,  and  watch  the  habits  of  growth  of  the  young  plants.  See  if  the  chil- 
dren can  find  out  when  the  sod  begins  to  form.  Plant  seeds  at  varying  depths.  Leave 
some  almost  entirely  uncovered.  Determine  which  germinate  the  best.  Sow  a  small 
plat  with  pure  bluegrass  seed,  another  with  bluegrass  and  white  clover  seeds  mixed. 
Which  succeeds  best?  Procure  several  pieces  of  sod,  each  about  three  inches  square. 
Place  these  in  soil  about  six  inches  apart.  Watch  results.  What  has  made  it  possi- 
ble for  these  to  cover  the  ground?  Have  the  children  name  the  characteristics  that 
make  blue  grass  a  good  pasture  and  lawn  grass.  (Informal  discussions  and  written 
reports  on  this  work  will  insure  its  value.) 

CAEE  OF  THE  LAWN. — Everyone  likes  to  see  a  smooth,  velvety  lawn.  En- 
courage the  children  to  suggest  things  to  do  to  keep  their  lawns  at  home  beautiful. 
Bemove  sticks,  dead  leaves,  paper,  and  weeds.  If  there  are  bare  spots  they  should 
be  raked  and  so\vn  with  fresh  seeds  early  in  the  spring.  If  the  lawn  is  uneven  it 
should  be  rolled.  Mowing  should  be  done  often  enough  to  keep  the  grass  cut  close. 
During  hot  weather  evening  is  a  better  time  to  mow  than  morning.  Why?  In  dry 
weather  the  grass  should  not  be  cut  too  close.  Why?  (There  is  danger  of  ex- 
posing the  roots  to  the  sun.)  (A  small  bunch  of  flowering  and  fruiting  bluegrass 
ought  to  be  put  away  for  schoolroom  observation.) 

EXEMIES  OF  THE  LAWN. — What  are  some  of  the  enemies  of  the  lawn  and 
pasture?  The  children  will  suggest  many.  Dandelion,  plantain,  mole,  grubworm, 
etc.  We  shall  study  some  of  these  next  month. 

HOT  BED  AND  COLD  FRAME. — If  the  teacher  has  time  a  discussion  of  the  use 
of  hot  beds  and  cold  frames  should  be  given.  In  some  places  a  cold  frame  or  hot 
bed  may  be  made.  If  this  is  done  various  plants  such  as  tomatoes,  cabbage,  sweet 
potatoes  may  be  raised  for  the  children  to  take  home,  or  to  plant  in  the  school  garden. 

APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOR  APRIL.— Enemies  of  lawns  and  pastures.  Weeds.  Special 
study  of  dandelion — habit  of  growth,  root.  Does  it  live  all  winter,  perennial,  leaves, 
flowers,  decide  whether  it  is  one  flower  or  many  small  ones,  seed.  What  makes  it 
a  successful  weed?  Comparative  study  of  plantain,  thistle,  iron  weed,  curly  dock,  etc. 

The  mole  as  an  enemy  of  the  lawn.  Review  grasshopper  and  crickets  in  this 
connection. 

BIRDS. — List  of  birds  identified;  keep  bird  calendar;  special  study  of  seed  eat- 
ing birds,  with  emphasis  cm  the  sparrow  group. 

GARDEN. — Care  of  plants  in  cold  frame.  Transplant.  Plant  other  seeds  in 
garden.  Plan  to  raise  flowers  and  vegetables  for  display  next  fall. 

VACATION  PLANS. — Plan  to  keep  a  record  of  all  plants  grown  in  the  gar- 
den. Time  of  planting,  when  ready  for  use.  Value  of  each.  Watch  for  insects  on 
plants.  Watch  for  birds  that  catch  insects. 

DANDELION.  LESSON  1.— We  have  noticed  that  the  lawn  and  pastures  have 
certain  enemies  to  contend  with.  What  are  some  of  the  weeds  that  grow  on  the 
lawns?  In  the  pastures?  The  dandelion  is  an  excellent  plant  for  detailed  study. 

How  many  of  the  children  know  whether  or  not  the  dandelion  lives  over  the 
winter?  Who  noticed  some  dandelion  plants  when  you  first  studied  the  blue  grass? 
(The  dandelion  lives  all  winter.  Sometimes  the  leaves  die  and  only  the  part  that  is 
in  the  ground  lives. )  Have  the  children  observe  dandelion  plants.  Note  the  habit  of 
growth.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  leaves  to  the  ground?  Leaves  that  grow  in  this 
fashion  are  said  to  have  the  rosette  habit  of  growth.  Where  are  the  longest  leaves, 
at  the  outer  or  inner  part  of  the  rosette?  Where  are  the  youngest  leaves?  Is  the 
center  of  the  rosette  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  below  it?  Are 
there  any  advantages  to  the  plant  in  growing  as  it  does?  (The  children  will  read- 
ily see  that  the  plants  are  better  protected  from  wind  and  cold  because  of  this  habit 
of  growth.) 

LESSON  2. — Dig  up  a  number  of  plants,  wash  off  the  soil,  and  bring  into  the 
schoolroom.  Examine  the  root.  Note  how  long  and  thick  it  is  and  its  direction  of 


72 

growth.  Compare  with  bluegrass  roots.  This  kind  of  root  is  called  a  fleshy  tap  root. 
Has  this  root  any  special  advantages!  Let  the  children  think  about  this.  Do  not 
try  to  answer  it  fully  now.  Have  the  children  pull  the  rosettes  apart,  carefully  not- 
ing what  is  stored  away  in  the  center  of  each.  They  will  be  interested  to  find  numbers 
of  tiny  flower  buds,  some  larger  than  a  pea,  some  as  small  as  a  pin  head.  Determine 
the  average  number  of  buds  in  the  specimens. 

LESSON  3. — Flower  and  fruit.  Note  the  time  of  the  first  dandelion  flowers, 
position  of  flower  on  the  plant,  length  of  flower  stem.  Note  that  as  the  stem  length- 
ens it  does  not  grow  straight  upward,  but  first  bends  outward.  Have  the  children 
watch  to  see  the  flowers  close  up  at  night  and  during  rainy,  cloudy  days.  Bring  a 
number  of  flowers  into  the  schoolroom.  Have  the  children  decide  whether  what  they 
call  the  flower  is  a  single  flower  or  a  cluster  of  many  flowers.  Separate  the  cluster  of 
flowers  and  look  at  one  small  flower.  What  do  you  see?  (A  small  seedlike  body  at 
the  lower  part,  a  cluster  of  soft  hairs  above  this,  and  the  yellow  part,  the  corolla, 
with  the  two  "pollen  catchers"  extending  above  it.) 

LESSON  4. — Have  children  estimate,  by  counting  the  number  of  flowers  in 
three  or  four  clusters,  about  how  many  flowers  one  plant  will  produce.  If  each 
flower  makes  one  seed,  how  many  seeds  will  one  plant  produce?  How  long 
after  the  flowers  begin  to  open  until  the  seeds  are  ripe?  How  does  this  compare 
with  the  other  plants  you  know?  What  is  the  position  of  the  stem  with  the  ripe  fruit 
on  it?  What  advantage  in  its  standing  so  tall  and  straight?  Examine  the  fruit. 
What  part  of  the  flower  has  opened  up  into  the  parachute-like  part?  What  has  be- 
come of  the  seeds?  What  scatters  the  seeds  of  this  plant? 

LESSON  5. — Compare  other  lawn  or  pasture  weeds  with  the  dandelion.  Find 
plantain,  thistle.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  make  a  collection  of  lawn  and  pasture 
weeds. 

LESSON  6.— OUT-OF-SCHOOL  STUDIES.— Cut  off  the  leaves  of  a  dandelion 
rosette,  leaving  the  center  uninjured.  Cut  another  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Cut  a  third  about  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Have  the 
children  try  these  experiments  at  home  as  well  as  at  school  and  report  results.  They 
will  find  that  unless  the  plant  is  cut  off  far  below  the  surface  it  will  continue  to 
grow.  Have  them  decide  whether  or  not  a  lawn  mower  will  kill  the  dandelions  and 
whether  ordinary  methods  of  weeding  will  do  it.  Plant  a  few  seeds  to  determine 
whether  or  not  they  grow  the  first  season.  Study  a  path  or  some  spot  that  has  been 
trampled  upon  to  decide  which  can  stand  trampling  better,  blue  grass  or  dandelion. 

VACATION  PLANS.  LESSONS  13-15.— Encourage  the  children  to  continue  the 
observation  of  trees  during  the  summer.  Also  birds,  garden,  etc.,  as  suggested  in 
the  outline. 

BLUEGEASS  AND  DANDELION. — When  does  the  blue  grass  begin  to  blossom? 
Which  does  the  bluegrass  head  resemble  more,  oats  or  wheat?  This  kind  of  a  head 
is  called  a  panicle.  See  if  you  can  find  where  the  seeds  are  borne.  Are  there  many 
seeds  in  one  head?  Do  dandelions  flower  all  summer?  Do  the  leaves  grow  any  higher 
in  tall  grass  than  where  the  grass  is  kept  mown?  Try  to  work  out  some  of  the  ex- 
periments suggested  in  Lesson  Six. 


73 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  SIXTH  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  SEPTEMBER. — Report  on  vacation  studies  and  observation. 
Fall  aspect  of  garden,  condition  of  plants  started  in  the  spring.  Special  study  of 
cabbage,  kohl  rabi,  celery. 

Make  cuttings  of  geraniums,  coleus  or  other  plants.  Care  of  cutting.  Children 
take  plants  home. 

BUD  PEACHES — Study  how  to  make  and  grow  a  peach,  tree. 
Special  study  of  cabbage  worm;  nature  and  extent  of  damage  done;  methods 
of  combating ;  life  history  worked  out  in  school  room. 

VACATION. — Report  on  vacation  studies  and  observation  as  suggested  in  the 
outline.  Make  special  study  of  cabbage  plant.  Discuss  how  the  plants  were  started 
in  the  spring.  How  the  habit  of  growth  differs  from  other  garden  plants.  What 
is  the  cabbage  head?  Cut  one  open  and  find  the  short  stem  with  the  leaves  growing 
out  of  it  close  together.  The  head  is  like  a  great  bud  that  never  opens.  Where 
do  cabbage  seeds  come  from?  What  must  we  do  if  we  wish  to  raise  cabbage  seeds? 
Recall  the  study  of  biennials  of  the  fifth  jear.  (Cabbage  is  a  biennial.) 

CUTTINGS. — Every  school  should  make  a  few  cuttings  to  keep  in  the  school 
room,  and  for  the  children  to  take  home.  For  this  work  you  need  a  few  sharp 
pocket  knives,  and  a  box  that  may  be  set  up  on  the  window  sill.  A  few  holes  should 
be  bored  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  for  drainage.  Place  some  clean  sand  in  the  box. 
Soil  will  do  if  sand  cannot  be  obtained.  Water  the  sand  thoroly  and  firm  it  down 
with  a  flat  piece  of  board.  Make  a  groove  about  an  inch  deep  with  an  old  case- 
knife  or  stick.  Your  box  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  cuttings. 

No  plant  is  better  than  the  geranium  from  which  to  make  successful  cuttings. 
If  there  are  none  growing  on  the  school  grounds  some  person  in  the  neighborhood 
who  has  plants  will  be  glad  to  let  you  have  a  number  of  large  branches  or  entire 
plants  from  which  to  make  cuttings.  Select  the  growing  tip  of  a  stem  or  branch. 
Cut  it  off  three  or  four  inches  in  length  just  below  a  node  or  leaf.  Make  one  clean, 
horizontal  cut,  break  off  the  lower  leaves  and  trim  the  edges  of  the  upper  ones. 
Why  is  this  done?  (This  is  done  to  prevent  too  much  evaporation  from  the  leaves.) 

Now  place  the  cuttings  in  the  groove  made  in  the  propagation  box.  Place  them 
an  inch  or  more  apart  so  the  leaves  will  have  room  enough  to  spread  out  and  get 
the  light.  When  one  groove  is  full,  press  the  sand  close  to  the  stem  with  your 
fingers.  When  all  the  cuttings  are  in,  water  very  thoroly  so  that  the  sand  will  be 
washed  up  close  around  the  stems.  Cover  from  the  light  for  a  day  or  two  with 
paper.  If  the  cuttings  do  not  come  to  the  top  of  the  box  a  pane  of  glass  laid  over 
the  top  will  keep  the  moisture  in  and  at  the  same  time  allow  plenty  of  light. 

In  caring  for  the  cuttings  keep  the  sand  moist,  but  not  wet.  Allow  them  plenty 
of  light  after  the  first  day  or  two,  but  not  direct  sunlight.  If  a  glass  is  used  over 
the  box,  it  should  be  taken  off  for  half  an  hour  each  day.  Why?  (Plants  need  air 
and  this  gives  a  chance  for  a  fresh  supply.) 

When  the  cuttings  are  well-rooted  then  comes  the  lesson  in  transplanting.  Have 
the  children  bring  pots  in  which  they  may  place  plants  to  take  home.  Baking- 
powder  cans,  tomato  cans,  or  small  lard  pails  will  serve  just  as  well  as  earthen 
flowerpots.  With  a  nail  make  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  What  for?  (Drain- 
age.) Have  the  children  bring  some  garden  soil  or  get  some  from  a  field  near  by. 
You  may  use  this  as  it  is  or  you  may  make  an  excellent  soil  for  potted  plants  by 
mixing  thoroughly  one  part  of  the  garden  soil  with  one-fourth  part  sand  and  one- 
fourth  humus,  (well  rotted  leaf  mold  or  well-rotted  stable  manure.)  Have  the  soil 
just  moist  enough  so  that  when  you  press  a  handful  of  it  together  it  will  readily 
fall  apart  when  dropped.  Cover  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  can  with  a  piece  of 
broken  flowerpot  concave  side  down,  or  place  a  few  pebbles  or  bits  of  broken  crockery 
or  brick  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  Why  do  you  do  this?  (To  allow  the  water  to 
drain  out  thru  the  hole  without  washing  the  soil  out.) 

An  old  case  knife  or  a  small  wooden  paddle  will  be  found  useful  in  removing 
the  plants  from  the  propagation  box.  Fill  the  pot  about  half  full  of  soil,  then 


74 

place  the  plant  in  position  in  the  middle,  and  hold  it  while  you  put  in  the  soil 
around  it.  Press  the  soil  down  firmly  with  the  thumbs,  water  well,  and  set  in  a 
subdued  light.  After  a  few  days  let  the  plant  have  plenty  of  light.  Keep  it  well 
watered,  but  do  not  allow  the  saucer  or  vessel  that  catches  the  drainage  to  stand 
full  of  water.  Wjhy?  (This  will  keep  the  soil  standing  so  full  of  water  that  the 
air  will  be  shut  out,  and  the  roots  need  air  to  keep  them  alive.) 

SPECIAL  OBSEKVATIONS. — When  making  cuttings,  place  three  or  four  extra 
ones  in  the  propagation  box  for  examination.  When  time  for  transplanting  comes, 
remove  the  sand  or  soil  from  the  ends  of  these  to  see  what  has  happened.  Has  the 
cut  healed?  Gardeners  say  the  stem  has  formed  a  callus.  If  it  does  not  form  a 
callus,  or  heal,  it  will  not  grow.  Where  have  the  roots  come  out  on  the  stem?  Does 
it  take  some  plants  longer  than  others  to  produce  roots?  Put  in  several  different 
kinds  and  note  the  time  required.  Why  is  it  better  to  start  cuttings  in  sand  or  soil 
than  in  water?  The  plants  may  form  a  callus  and  root  in  water  but  they  are  not 
as  likely  to  do  well  when  transplanted.  The  roots  must  adjust  themselves  to  entirely 
new  conditions,  and  this  they  may  not  be  able  to  do  at  once  and  as  a  result  the 
plant  may  die. 

After  the  plants  have  been  transplanted,  watch  the  appearance  of  new  leaves. 
Where?  How  does  the  stem  lengthen?  Where  do  new  branches  grow  out?  How 
soon  do  the  flowers  begin  to  make  their  appearance?  Have  children  report  in  regard 
to  the  plants  that  they  have  taken  home. 

Let  one  pot  remain  with  the  same  side  toward  the  window  for  a  number  of 
days.  Turn  the  other  pots  every  day  or  two.  Compare.  This  shows  very  well  how 
plants  seek  the  light. 

If  no  one  can  care  for  the  plants  in  the  school  room  over  Saturday  and  Sunday 
fill  the  saucers  with  water  Friday  night.  This  will  provide  enough  moisture  (ill 
Monday.  During  the  cold  weather,  if  you  have  no  cellar  in  which  to  place  the 
plants  to  keep  them  from  freezing,  make  thick  covers  of  paper  in  the  shape  of 
cones  and  slip  over  the  plants,  wrapping  extra  paper  around  the  pots.  In  this  way 
you  may  keep  your  plants  a  number  of  weeks  even  in  very  cold  weather.  Do  not 
attempt  to  keep  too  many. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  plants  that  are  easily  propagated  by  means  of  cut- 
tings: geraniums,  coleus  or  foliage  plants,  wandering  Jew,  salvia,  impatiens  or  bal- 
sam, oxalis,  sultana,  alternanthera,  heliotrope. 

Have  the  children  try  to  think  out  why  we  use  cuttings  instead  of  seeds.  They 
will  readily  see  the  following  advantages  of  propagating  by  means  of  cuttings  instead 
of  seeds;  (a)  they  get  quicker  results;  the  plants  are  ready  to  flower  in  half  the 
time;  (b)  they  are  certain  to  get  the  same  kind  of  plant  as  the  parent  while  if 
seeds  are  used  they  may  get  one  color  or  variety  when  they  expected  another. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOE  OCTOBEE. — Identification  of  garden  weeds;  weed  herbarium. 
Birds  as  weed  destroyers.  Review  native  sparrows. 

Find  blackberry  and  raspberry  canes  that  have  borne  fruit  this  year;  new  canes. 
Pruning;  why  necessary?  How  do  raspberries  spread?  Blackberries?  Make  cut- 
tings of  grape;  study  varieties  of  grapes;  habits  of  growth,  how  and  when  to  prune. 
Eelatives  of  grape. 

GAEDEN  WEEDS. — Have  pupils  look  in  the  garden  for  different  kinds  of 
weeds.  As  far  as  possible  get  the  names  of  the  different  kinds.  Make  a  special 
study  of  one — as  the  purslane.  Note  its  habit  of  growth,  close  to  the  ground.  Note 
the  space  that  one  plant  covers.  Bruise  the  stem  to  determine  whether  or  not  it 
has  much  moisture  in  it.  Pull  up  a  plant  and  let  it  lie  in  the  sun  for  a  day.  Does 
it  wilt  as  much  as  some  other  plants,  when  left  in  the  sun?  Why?  Find  the  flowers 
if  there  are  any  left.  Note  size  and  color.  Look  for  the  boxlike  seed  pod.  Open 
up  the  box  and  find  the  seed.  How  many  pods  on  one  plant?  Count  the  seed  in  one 
pod.  Can  you  estimate  how  many  new  plants  one  of  these  weeds  will  start  next 
year? 

In  a  similar  manner  study  several  more  garden  weeds.  Let  each  child  begin 
a  weed  herbarium.  Press  the  weeds  and  when  they  are  perfectly  dry  paste  them 
upon  paper  or  card  board.  Each  specimen  should  show  a  part  of  the  stem,  the 
leaves,  and  a  few  seeds. 


75 

Make  a  detailed  study  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  as  suggested  in  the  out- 
line. 

GRAPE  CUTTINGS. — The  work  should  be  done  the  very  last  part  of  the 
month  when  the  vines  have  dropped  their  leaves.  If  the  class  has  not  already  made 
a  detailed  study  of  soft-wood  cuttings  then  as  a  preliminary  lesson  soft-wood  cut- 
tings should  be'made  with  a  study  of  the  callus,  rooting,  and  transplanting. 

Grape  cuttings  are  made  late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  when  the  leaves  have 
fallen  off,  and  the  plant  has  ceased  work  for  the  winter.  Cuttings  made  from  hard 
wood  at  this  season  are  called  dormant  cuttings.  Will  you  want  old  wood  or  new 
for  the  cuttings?  They  should  be  made  from  this  season's  growth.  Measure  some 
of  the  stems  to  determine  the  length  of  growth  in  one  season.  Do  these  stems  vary 
in  thickiu 

How  many  buds  on  one  stem?  How  arranged?  Remove  from  the  vine  a  number 
of  branches.  Make  a  slanting  cut  through  the  joint  or  node  where  a  bud  is  attached. 
To  do  this  place  the  knife  on  the  side  of  the  stem  opposite  the  bud  and  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  it.  Xow  cut  slanting  downward  and  the  knife  will  come  out  just  below 
the  bud.  Make  one  clean  cut;  it  must  not  be  jagged.  Each  cutting  should  have  at 
least  two  good  buds. 

What  will  you  do  with  your  cuttings?  Tie  a  number  together  and  place  them 
in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  place,  or  they  may  be  buried  in  the  soil  of  the  garden.  If 
this  is  done  care  should  be  taken  not  to  put  them  where  they  will  stand  in  water. 
What  do  you  want  the  cuttings  to  do  during  the  winter?  Just  what  your  soft-wood 
cuttings  did,  form  a  callus  and  start  roots. 

NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  NOVEMBER. — Collections  and  study  of  pebbles,  minerals,  rock 
specimens,  glacial  evidence,  fossils;  origin  of  soils;  identification  of  sand,  gravel, 
loam,  clay,  silt;  experiments  in  letting  these  settle  in  dish  of  water.  Characterize 
local  soils.  Value  of  farm  lands  and  of  village  building  lots.  Drainage;  ditches; 
tile.  Diagram  showing  drainage  plan  on  home  farm.  House  and  cellar  drains;  dis- 
tinctions between  drainage  and  sewer  tiles. 

A  STUDY  OF  PEBBLES. — LESSON  1. — In  preparing  for  this  lesson  the 
teacher  should  ask  the  pupils  to  look  for  pebbles  or  small  bits  of  rocks  and  bring 
them  in.  If  there  is  a  stream  in  the  neighborhood  collect  some  of  the  pebbles  from 
its  banks  and  bed.  The  teacher  should  have  on  hand  a  collection  of  pebbles  of 
various  kinds.  Let  the  children  examine  the  pebbles  brought  in  and  compare  them 
as  to  shape.  Are  they  all  the  same  color?  Are  some  rounder  than  others,  some 
smoother?  Try  scratching  a  number  of  the  pebbles  with  a  sharp  nail.  Do  some 
scratch  more  easily  than  others?  Put  together  all  that  are  similar  in  color.  Do  you 
find  any  that  seem  to  be  made  up  of  more  than  one  kind  of  stone? 

LESSON  2. — Where  do  the  pebbles  come  from?  Some  of  the  children  may 
have  found  pebbles  in  the  soil  of  the  gardens,  or  fields,  some  near  streams.  Are 
pebbles  which  are  found  in  the  banks  and  bed  of  streams  smooth  or  rough?  Are  they 
round  like  a  marble  or  flat?  How  did  these  pebbles  come  there,  and  why  are  they  so 
smooth?  If  we  go  up  a  stream  to  its  source  in  the  hills  do  you  think  we  should 
find  as  many  small,  smooth  pebbles  there?  In  most  streams  we  should  find  near  the 
source  large  pieces  of  rock  that  have  broken  from  the  hillsides  and  bluffs  and  fallen 
down  into  the  stream.  In  fact,  the  bed  of  the  stream  here,  we  should  find,  is  made 
up  almost  altogether  of  these  great  pieces  of  rock.  Can  you  imagine  that  these 
great  pieces  of  rocks  are  the  beginnings  of  the  small  pebbles?  These  pieces  are 
broken  into  smaller  and  smaller  pieces  by  tumbling  upon  each  other  and  by  the  action 
of  frosts.  At  this  time  they  are  rough,  angular,  and  square  cornered.  How  do  they 
become  so  small  and  smooth?  To  answer  this  put  a  few  broken,  sharp-cornered 
pieces  of  stone  into  a  thick  bottle,  cover  with  water,  put  in  the  stopper,  and  let  the 
children  take  turns  shaking  this  vigorously.  After  a  number  of  minutes  notice  what 
change  has  taken  place.  Why  is  the  water  muddy?  What  has  been  happening  to 
the  pieces  of  rock?  (In  striking  against  each  other  they  have  been  wearing  away 
little  by  little  and  the  tiny  particles  caused  the  water  to  become  muddy.)  That  is 
just  what  happens  to  the  rocks  in  the  stream.  The  rocks  strike  against  each  other 
and  slowly  grind  off  the  rough  places  and  sharp  corners.  The  farther  down  the 


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stream  we  go  the  more  they  are  worn  and  the  smaller  they  become.  Finally,  after 
many,  many  years,  there  is  nothing  left  but  the  pebbles. 

LESSON  3. — Have  the  children  tell  the  story  of  a  pebble  starting  at  the  source 
of  the  stream  with  a  great  piece  of  rock  and  following  it  step  by  step  as  it  goes 
down  the  stream  until  it  becomes  a  small  pebble.  Be  sure  to  have  them  realize 
the  great  length  of  time  necessary  for  this  change.  In  many  cases  it  takes  thousands 
of  years  to  make  a  pebble  out  of  one  of  these  pieces  of  rock. 

LESSON  4. — Some  pebbles  are  made  by  the  washing  back  and  forth  of  waves 
on  the  shores  of  lakes  and  seas.  As  the  waves  dash  upon  the  shore  and  then  run 
back  into  the  sea  the  pieces  of  stones  are  rolled  back  and  forth  and  grind  each 
other  in  much  the  same  fashion  as  they  do  in  the  river.  Which  do  you  think  would 
probably  make  the  rounder  pebble,  the  sea  waves  or  the  river?  (The  children  will 
readily  see  that  the  rolling  back  and  forth  is  likely  to  result  in  a  round  pebble 
rather  than  a  flat  one.)  Some  of  the  pebbles  we  find  may  have  been  formed  in 
another  way.  Any  pebbles  or  stones  that  have  scratches  on  their  surface  have  quite 
another  story  to  tell.  Who  knows  what  a  glacier  is?  Your  geography  tells  you 
something  of  the  glaciers  of  Switzerland  and  Alaska.  Glaciers,  as  we  know,  are 
made  up  of  the  great  masses  of  snow  which  pile  up  year  after  year  until  they  are 
many,  many  feet  deep.  The  snow  is  pressed  down  until  it  forms  a  crumbling  sort 
of  ice  on  the  slopes.  This  great  mass  of  snow  and  ice  moves  slowly  down  toward 
the  valleys  becoming  harder  and  more  like  real  ice  all  the  time.  When  this  reaches 
the  valley  it  still  flows  along  but  so  slowly  that  we  could  not  see  it  moving  if  we 
watched  ever  so  carefully.  It  does  not  move  more  than  two  or  three  feet  during  an 
entire  day.  As  the  glacier  moves  along  it  picks  up  pieces  of  rock  and  pebbles  carry- 
ing them  along  with  it.  Some  of  the  pebbles  carried  by  the  ice  pass  over  other 
pebbles  or  pieces  of  stone  and  in  striking  against  each  other  little  scratches  are 
made,  and  the  stones  are  gradually  worn  away.  Whenever  you  find  a  scratched  pebble 
you  may  know  that  ages  ago  glaciers  moved  over  the  country  carrying  rocks  and 
clay,  mud  and  pebbles  with  them.  Here  in  Illinois  we  have  evidences  that  thousands 
of  years  ago  there  were  a  number  of  these  glaciers. 

LESSON  5. — Have  the  children  summarize  all  the  ways  in  which  pebbles  are 
made;  those  made  by  the  streams,  by  the  waves  of  sea  and  lake,  and  by.  glaciers. 
Examine  again  the  pebbles  that  you  grouped  together  because  they  resembled  each 
other.  Why  do  you  find  a  difference  in  these  pebbles?  Do  you  suppose  that  they 
were  all  of  the  same  kind  of  rock  to  begin  with?  We  have  already  found  that 
some  were  harder  than  others.  That  means  that  they  were  harder  in  the  beginning. 
Some  were  probably  granite,  some  sand-stone,  some  limestone,  and  some  of  still 
different  kinds  of  rock.  What  else  do  we  find  in  the  bed  of  a  river  besides  pebbles? 
(The  children  will,  no  doubt,  mention  at  least  gravel  and  sand,  perhaps  some  will 
also  name  mud  and  clay.)  How  did  the  sand  and  gravel  come  there?  Do  you 
suppose  that  they,  too,  are  broken  rock?  Tell  the  children  to  bring  in  samples  of 
sand  and  gravel,  also  some  soil  from  the  gardens  and  fields. 

ORIGIN  OF  SOIL.— LESSON  6.— We  shall  now  try  to  find  out  just  how  this 
soil  was  made.  Try  to  have  the  children  think  of  a  time  ages  and  ages  ago  when 
there  was  no  broken  up  rock  on  the  earth,  no  sand  or  gravel  or  soil  of  any  kind. 
At  that  time  we  can  think  of  the  surface  covered  with  solid  rock  wrinkled  and 
ridged  into  mountains  and  valleys.  Now  we  find  almost  everywhere,  except  in  the 
mountains,  a  covering  of  soil. 

Can  you  think  of  all  the  agents  that  helped  to  break  up  the  soil  rock  of  the 
earth  and  make  it  fine  enough  for  plants  to  grow  in?  We  have  already  spoken 
of  the  work  of  glaciers,  of  water  in  streams  and  of  waves  on  the  shore.  All  of  these 
agents  helped  to  make  sand  and  gravel  as  well  as  pebbles.  But  some  other  things 
have  helped  also.  What  happens  to  a  wagon  tire  when  a  blacksmith  heats  it?  Does 
it  grow  larger  or  smaller?  When  he  puts  it  on  the  wheel  what  does  it  do  as  it 
cools?  (The  iron  expands  when  it  is  hot  and  contracts,  getting  smaller,  when  it  is 
cool.)  Many  rocks  are  affected  in  the  same  way  but  often  in  cooling  they  crack. 
Did  you  ever  happen  to  spatter  a  drop  of  cold  water  on  a  hot  lamp  chimney?  Why 
did  it  break?  (The  cold  water  caused  the  glass  in  that  one  spot  to  contract  so 
suddenly  that  the  little  particles  of  glass  could  not  stand  the  strain  of  being  pulled 
away  from  the  rest  and  so  it  broke.)  Frost  or  freezing  is  another  way  in  which 
rocks  are  broken.  Did  you  ever  have  a  glass  broken  because  it  was  full  of  water 


77 

and  you  left  it  out  where  it  could  freeze?  What  made  it  break?  (Water  in  freez- 
ing expands,  occupies  a  much  larger  space.  The  force  of  this  expanding  water  broke 
the  glass).  When  water  gets  into  cracks  and  crevices  of  rocks  and  then  freezes 
what  is  certain  to  happen?  Does  freezing  help  in  any  way  to  break  up  clods  of 
soil?  Try  this  experiment.  Make  a  ball  of  garden  soil  by  moistening  it  and  work- 
ing it  like  dough,  put  it  on  the  stove  and  let  it  dry  then  pour  some  water  over  it 
and  set  it  out  of  doors  where  it  will  freeze.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  freezing? 

LESSON  7. — Let  the  children  enumerate  the  agents  they  named  in  yesterday's 
lesson  that  helped  to  break  up  the  rock.  Bain,  wind,  and  snow  also  help  to  decay 
rock  and  cause  it  to  fall  to  pieces.  Plants,  too,  help  very  greatly  in  breaking  up 
rock.  Sometimes  the  roots  of  trees  penetrate  the  small  crevices  in  rocks  and  burst  them 
asunder.  Plants  grown  in  the  soil  help  to  make  it  finer  because  of  an  acid  that  they 
give  out  from  their  roots  which  dissolves  particles  of  soil.  There  are  also  some  little 
organic  bodies  in  the  soil  that  are  working  all  the  time  wherever  plants  are  growing 
or  vegetation  decaying  to  make  the  soil  finer. 

LESSON  8. — Have  the  children  place  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  a  small  amount 
of  gravel,  sand,  clay  and  garden  soil.  Which  is  coarser?  Are  all  the  little  pebbles 
in  the  gravel  round?  Is  there  any  coarse  sand  in  the  gravel?  Look  carefully  at 
the  sand.  Are  all  the  little  grains  the  same  color?  Rub  a  little  of  the  sand  between 
your  thumb  and  finger.  How  does  it  feel?  If  you  have  a  lens  look  at  the  particles. 
Do  you  find  any  that  have  sharp,  jagged  edges?  These  are  small  bits  of  a  very 
hard  rock  called  quartz.  None  of  the  agents  have  been  able  to  break  them  into 
smaller  pieces.  Test  the  clay  in  the  same  way.  How  does  it  feel?  Can  you  find  any 
shiny  particles  in  the  clay?  In  the  same  way  examine  the  garden  soil  and  decide 
whether  there  are  any  shiny  particles  that  resemble  those  of  the  sand  in  that?  What 
else  do  you  find  in  the  garden  soil  that  you  do  not  find  in  any  of  the  others?  (Bits 
of  decayed  plants  will  probably  be  found.)  Do  you  think  this  soil  has  anything 
more  in  it  than  broken  up  rock?  (This  dark  fine  material  that  you  find  in  the  gar- 
den soil  is  called  humus.  This  is  vegetation  that  has  been  changed  by  the  action  of 
air  and  water  and  little  living  organisms  that  we  call  bacteria.)  Do  you  know  what 
we  call  soil  that  has  this  material  in  it?  (It  is  called  loam.) 

LESSON  9. — For  this  lesson  you  will  need  four  glass  tumblers  and  some  sand, 
clay,  gravel,  and  loam.  Fill  the  tumblers  almost  full  of  water.  Place  a  tablespoonful 
of  sand  in  one  tumbler,  gravel  in  another,  clay  and  loam  each  in  the  others  and 
stir  thoroughly.  Watch  carefully  to  see  which  settles  first.  Let  them  stand  for 
some  time.  In  which  does  the  water  become  clearest?  In  which  does  it  remain 
muddiest?  Stir  them  all  again.  Let  them  stand  about  two  minutes,  then  pour  off 
all  the  water  leaving  the  settlings  in  the  bottom.  Set  aside  for  the  next  day 's  lesson. 

LESSON  10. — Examine  the  soil  that  was  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  glasses 
from  yesterday's  experiment.  In  which  do  you  find  the  most  grains  of  sand?  Let 
the  children  try  this  experiment  with  the  different  soils  brought  in  from  the  differ- 
ent farms  in  the  neighborhood  and  determine  whether  or  not  some  of  the  soil  con- 
tains more  sand  than  others. 

When  the  loam  contains  a  high  percent  of  sand  we  call  it  sandy  loam.-  When 
it  contains  a  great  deal  of  silt  we  call  it  silt  loam,  and  when  it  has  a  high  percent 
of  clay  it  is  known  as  clay  loam. 

Let  the  class  try  to  determine  what  kind  of  soil  is  common  in  the  district. 
(There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  soil  in  Illinois.  Among  these  are  prairie 
brown  silt  loam,  black  clay  loam,  yellow  clay  or  silt  loam,  brown  sandy  loam,  peaty 
swamp  lands,  sandy  hillside  loams.  The  teacher  will  find  Bulletin  No.  123,  Fertility 
in  Illinois  Soils,  an  excellent  aid  in  determining  the  kind  of  soil  in  different  parts 
of  Illinois.  This  is  published  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois.) 

LESSON  11. — Does  the  kind  of  soil  have  anything  to  do  with  the  value  of  land? 
Is  pure  sand  or  pure  clay  as  valuable  as  land  that  has  a  high  per  cent  of  humus 
in  it?  What  is  the  value  of  land  per  acre  in  your  neighborhood?  Are  there  some 
other  things  besides  the  kind  of  soil  that  we  must  consider  in  estimating  the  value 
of  a  farm?  (Let  the  children  name  some  of  these.  Among  others  the  drainage 
should  be  mentioned.)  Why  is  drainage  necessary?  (In  order  to  understand  this 
we  must  know  something  about  the  water  in  the  soil.)  Where  does  the  water  in 


78 

the  soil  come  from?  (Eain  either  directly  or  indirectly  supplies  all  of  the  soil 
water.)  What  becomes  of  the  rain  that  falls  upon  the  earth?  Ask  the  children  if 
they  have  ever  observed  the  rain  during  a  heavy  shower.  Some  of  it  runs  off,  some 
evaporates,  and  some  sinks  into  the  ground.  The  last  is  called  ground  water.  Spend 
some  time  discussing  the  story  of  a  rain  shower. 

LESSON  12. — We  shall  try  an  experiment  to  show  what  becomes  of  the  water 
that  sinks  into  the  ground.  Place  a  number  of  pebbles  or  gravel  in  the  bottom  of 
a  tumbler.  Cover  this  with  a  piece  of  cloth  then  fill  the  jar  with  fine  soil  from  a 
field  or  garden.  (The  cloth  is  put  in  simply  to  keep  the  particles  of  soil  from  filling 
the  spaces  among  the  pebbles.)  Pour  some  water  on  the  soil.  Watch  to  see  what  it 
does.  As  it  soaks  into  the  soil  can  you  see  it  between  the  particles?  Pour  in  more 
until  you  see  the  water  standing  in  the  spaces  among  the  pebbles  in  the  bottom  of 
the  glass.  When  the  rain  falls  upon  the  ground  it  does  just  what  this  water  did. 
It  percolates  slowly  downward-  thru  the  soil  till  it  is  stopped  by  a  layer  of  clay  or 
solid  rock,  just  as  the  bottom  of  the  glass  stopped  this.  If  it  keeps  on  raining  what 
will  happen?  Pour  more  water  into  the  glass  until  it  stands  on  the  top  of 
the  soil.  Does  this  ever  happen  in  the  field?  Are  all  the  spaces  between  the  small 
particles  filled  with  water  now  just  as  the  spaces  in  the  bottom  were  at  first?  Set 
the  glass  aside  until  the  following  day. 

LESSON  13. — Examine  the  glass  to  determine  whether  any  water  is  left  between 
the  spaces.  What  has  become  of  the  water  near  the  top  of  the  soil?  Water  that 
completely  fills  the  spaces  and  moves  slowly  downward  by  the  force  of  gravity  is 
called  free  water.  Plants  do  not  use  this  free  water.  Determine  by  looking  at  the 
glass  how  much  free  water  remains.  Have  in  class  some  soil  that  is  slightly  moist 
but  not  soaked  with  water.  Have  the  children  handle  this  and  determine  whether  or 
not  it  contains  moisture.  Where  is  the  moisture  in  this  soil?  (This  is  called 
capillary  water  and  it  is  in  little  films  around  the  particles.)  Put  a  smooth  pebble 
into  some  water.  Take  it  out  and  you  can  see  a  layer  of  water  around  it,  This 
shows  how  each  tiny  particle  of  the  soil  holds  a  film  of  moisture  even  when  there 
is  no  free  water  standing  among  the  particles.  Capillary  water  is  that  which  is 
used  by  plants. 

LESSON  14. — Since  the  plants  do  not  use  free  water  we  must  drain  it  away 
from  the  surface.  How  is  it  drained?  Have  the  class  report  the  different  methods 
of  drainage  used  in  the  district.  Who  has  seen  an  open  ditch?  How  deep  is  it? 
How  wide?  Is  it  ever  full  of  water?  Does  the  water  flow  along  swiftly  in  it?  Does 
it  ever  become  dry?  Is  it  ever  necessary  to  clean  it  out?  (Fine  soil  washes  into 
the  ditch  little  by  little  from  the  adjoining  fields  during  heavy  showers.  This  settles 
to  the  bottom  and  necessitates  the  cleaning  of  the  ditch  at  least  once  in  two 
years.  In  some  places  it  must  be  cleaned  once  every  year.)  Who  has  tile  on  their 
farms?  Drainage  by  means  of  tile  is  called  under  drainage.  Do  you  think  of  any 
reasons  why  this  is  better  in  most  places  than  an  open  ditch?  (The  children  will 
probably  be  able  to  name  a  few  of  the  advantages  of  the  tile  over  the  open  ditch. 
The  soil  above  may  be  cultivated,  hence  there  is  less  waste  of  ground.  When  tile 
is  properly  laid  it  will  last  for  years  and  therefore  needs  no  attention  as  the  open 
ditch  does.  Have  a  tile  in  class.  Who  has  ever  seen  tile  laid?  What  are  important 
things  to  consider  in  laying  tile?  (The  slope  must  be  watched  carefully  in  order  to 
have  enough  fall  so  the  water  will  slowly  drain  off.)  What  are  tile  made  of?  (Per- 
haps some  members  of  the  class  may  have  visited  a  tile  factory  and  will  be  able  to 
tell  how  tile  are  made.  They  are  made  of  a  certain  kind  of  clay  and  then  are  dried 
carefully  in  large  kilns  something  as  brick  are  dried.) 

LESSON  15. — Does  the  kind  of  soil  in  any  way  affect  drainage?  To  answer  this 
question  we  shall  try  the  following  experiment:  Procure  five  straight  topped  lamp 
chimneys.  Tie  firmly  over  the  top  of  each  a  piece  of  cloth.  Fill  the  chimneys  with 
different  kinds  of  soil.  Put  sand  in  one,  clay  or  silt  (common  yellow  clay)  in 
another,  loam  in  another,  a  mixture  of  half  sand  and  humus  (well  rotted  manure, 
or  leaf  mold)  in  another,  clay  and  humus  in  another.  Firm  the  soil  by  jarring  the 
chimneys  gently  up  on  the  table  while  they  are  being  filled.  Have  some  boy  make 
a  rack  for  the  chimneys  by  boring  or  cutting  a  hole  for  each  in  a  board.  The  hole 
should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  chimneys  to  slip  thru  to  the  large  portion  near 
the  base.  This  board  may  be  nailed  to  two  uprights  or  be  set  on  two  blocks  so  that 
a  pan  or  some  sauce  dishes  may  be  placed  under  the  chimneys  to  catch  the  drip- 


79 

pings.  Measure  a  definite  amount  of  water,  pour  it  slowly  into  the  sand.  Note  the 
length  of  time  that  transpires  until  the  water  begins  to  drip  below  into  the  dish. 
Keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of  water  you  pour  in.  Do  the  same  with  each  of 
the  other  chimneys.  Decide  which  drains  most  readily  and  which  retains  the  most 
water.  What  kind  of  water  dripped  from  the  soils?  This  was,  of  course  waste  free 
water  and  in  the  field  should  be  drained  off  by  under  drainage.  Does  humus  aid 
the  clay  in  allowing  the  water  to  pass  thru?  What  was  the  effect  of  putting  humus 
into  the  sand?  Are  the  soils  still  moist  after  the  water  has  stopped  dripping?  What 
kind  of  water  is  this?  (The  children  will  probably  remember  that  this  is  capillary 
water.) 

LESSON  16. — Ask  each  child  to  report  just  where  tile  is  laid  in  his  father's 
farm.  Where  does  the  tile  begin  and  where  does  it  end!  Are  there  any  low  spots 
iu  which  free  water  stands  part  of  the  time?  If  you  could  trace  the  water  in  a 
string  of  tile  where  would  it  finally  be  found?  Water  from  tile  may  be  traced  to 
the  ocean.  It  goes  from  one  tile  into  another,  a  somewhat  larger,  possibly,  into  an 
open  ditch  or  into  a  small  stream.  This  flows  into  a  larger  stream  or  into  a  river 
which  finally,  thru  other  rivers,  reaches  the  ocean.  Have  each  child  draw  a  square  or 
rectangle  representing  the  home  farm  and  with  dotted  lines  show  the  strings  of 
tile  on  the  farm.  Indicate  by  shading  or  in  some  other  way  the  highest  portions  of 
the  farm  and  the  lowest. 

LESSON  17. — Examine  the  tile  that  you  have  in  class.  Is  it  porous?  Stand 
it  in  a  pan  of  water  to  see  what  happens.  Will  the  water  soak  thru  the  tile?  Lay 
the  tile  down  on  one  side  and  place  on  top  several  layers  of  cloth  (an  old  towel 
folded  into  a  thick  wad  will  serve).  Saturate  the  cloth  thoroughly  with  water  and 
keep  it  wet.  After  a  few  days  examine  to  see  whether  or  not  the  water  has  soaked 
entirely  through  the  tile.  How,  then,  does  water  get  into  the  tile  in  the  field?  (Some 
goes  in  between  the  tiles  while  some  soaks  through  the  porous  tile.)  How  far  on 
each  side  of  a  string  of  tile  may  be  drained  by  it?  (That  depends,  of  course,  upon 
the  amount  of  water  in  the  soil,  the  slope  and  other  conditions.)  The  children  will 
probably  see  that,  since  there  is  less  pressure  of  water  in  the  tile  than  in  the  sur- 
rounding soil  the  movement  of  water  for  several  feet  or  even  rods  on  either  side 
will  be  toward  the  tile. 

Who  has  ever  seen  a  sewer  tile?  If  possible  have  one  of  these  in  class  and 
compare  with  drainage  tile.  Can  water  soak  thru  this?  The  children  will  readily 
see  that  the  glaced  surface  prevents  water  from  going  through.  How  are  the  ends 
laid  so  that  they  may  fit  closely  together  and  prevent  the  water  from  going  out  or 
in  at  the  joints?  What  is  the  use  of  sewer  tile? 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER.— Weather;  keep  record  for  the  month.  Study 
effect  of  weather  upon  plants,  animals  and  man. 

Water  supply  of  home  and  school.  Various  types  of  wells  and  pumps;  wind- 
mill. Methods  of  getting  water  to  stock  and  to  house;  city  water  supply.  How 
drinking  water  may  become  impure  or  dangerous;  how  typhoid  is  spread.  Value  of 
individual  drinking  cups. 

LESSON  1. — The  weather  is  so  closely  related  to  our  lives  that  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important  nature  study  topics.  For  this  reason  some  time  should  be  given  to 
making  weather  observations,  drawing  conclusions  and  noting  the  effects  of  weather 
upon  plant  and  animal  life.  Discuss  with  the  children  what  the  term  weather  means 
to  them.  The  discussion  will  probably  bring  out  ideas  of  heat,  rain,  drought,  snow, 
cold,  clouds,  winds  and  storms  of  various  kinds.  Has  the  weather  had  any  influence 
upon  work  done  on  the  farm  during  the  fall  months? 

LESSONS  2  AND  3. — Arrange  a  plan  for  keeping  a  daily  report  of  the  weather 
during  the  month.  Let  each  child  place  in  his  note  book  or  on  a  sheet  of  paper  the 
following  chart  making  a  place  for  each  day  in  the  month. 


80 


WEATHER  RECOKD 


Date 

Hour. 

Temper- 
ature. 

Wind 
Direc- 
tion. 

Veloc- 
ity. 

Sky. 

Precipita- 
tion or 
Rainfall. 

Remarks. 

Dec.  1 

9A.M. 

Warm, 
40° 

i 

Light 

Partly 
Cloudy 

Snow  this 
P.  M. 

These  observations  may  be  taken  without  instruments.  However,  if  the  school 
has  a  thermometer  then  the  temperature  should  be  reported  in  degrees.  If  there  is 
no  thermometer  then  the  terms  warm,  hot,  very  hot,  cold,  very  cold,  and  chilly,  may 
be  used.  The  direction  of  the  wind  may  be  indicated  by  an  arrow.  An  arrow 
pointing  toward  the  top  of  the  chart  indicates  a  wind  that  is  traveling  northward. 
Is  a  wind  named  from  the  direction  it  is  going  or  the  direction  from  which  it  is 
coming?  What  is  meant  by  the  velocity  of  the  wind?  (Velocity  means  the  distance 
the  wind  travels  per  hour.)  The  following  words  may  be  used  to  indicate  the 
velocity  of  the  wind.  These  terms  are  suggested  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.  Calm, 
when  there  is  no  perceptible  wind;  light,  when  wind  enough  to  just  move  the  branches 
of  the  trees;  brisk,  when  swaying  branches;  high,  when  swaying  whole  trees.  Under 
sky  record  whether  it  is  clear,  partly  cloudy,  or  overcast.  Precipitation  means  falling 
weather  of  any  sort — rain,  snow,  hail,  etc.  Under  remarks  report  any  item  of  inter- 
est that  does  not  appear  under  the  other  headings.  Thus,  for  December  3,  a  heavy 
frost  last  night,  or  for  December  16,  a  slight  snow  fell  this  afternoon. 

LESSONS  4  AND  5. — What  is  the  effect  of  cold  weather  upon  plants?  Ask  the 
children  to  observe  plants  along  the  road-side,  in  the  gardens,  pastures,  meadows 
and  fields.  Are  any  of  them  still  uninjured  by  frosts?  Have  any  been  killed?  The 
children  will  find  that  some  plants  are  still  green.  What  does  this  mean?  Some 
plants  are  much  harder  than  others  and  are  able  to  stand  a  temperature  below  freez- 
ing. Others  are  so  delicate  that  the  slightest  frost  kills  them.  Have  the  children 
make  a  list  of  hardy  plants  that  they  find,  and  the  delicate  ones.  Are  any  plants 
found  that  have  finished  their  work,  produced  their  seeds,  and  died  before  there 
were  any  hard  frosts?  Make  a  list  of  these  plants.  Observe  the  trees  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. Do  some  of  them  get  ready  for  cold  weather  before  others?  Are  there 
any  trees  that  still  retain  their  leaves?  Any  with  leaves  that  are  green? 

LESSONS  6  AND  7. — The  effect  of  cold  weather  upon  animal  life.  Ask  the 
children  to  look  carefully  for  insects  along  the  road-sides.  Are  there  as  many  as 
there  were  in  the  fall?  What  has  become  of  them?  (Many,  like  some  of  the  plants, 
have  died  because  their  life  work  is  done.)  Do  you  think  any  are  hidden  away 
for  the  winter?  (A  few  have  crept  under  leaves  and  other  objects  and  will  sleep 
during  the  winter  months.)  Are  there  as  many  flies  about  the  home  and  school  as 
there  were  earlier  in  the  season?  What  has  become  of  them?  Have  you  noticed 
any  fastened  to  the  ceiling  or  walls  quite  dead?  Have  you  found  any  alive  in 
cracks  and  crevices?  Do  you  know  whether  or  not  house  flies  live  as  grown  up  insects 
over  winter?  If  you  keep  your  eyes  open  you  will  find  on  warm  days  even  in  the 
middle  of  winter,  some  flies  coming  out  of  their  winter  quarters  and  buzzing  around 
on  the  window  panes.  They,  like  some  other  insects  spend  the  winter  in  the  growrnup 
stage.  They  hide  away  in  some  sheltered  nook  and  become  dormant.  That  is,  they 
remain  in  a  sort  of  stupor  and  do  not  eat  anything  for  months.  We  say  that  they 
hibernate  for  the  winter.  In  the  spring  they  come  forth  and  start  a  new  generation 
of  flies  for  the  next  season.  What  should  we  do,  then,  with  every  fly  that  we  find 
crawling  around  in  the  winter  time? 

If  you  pull  pieces  of  bark  from  posts  or  logs  you  will  discover  where  a  number 
of  insects  and  spiders  hibernate  for  the  winter. 

How  does  the  cold  affect  the  domestic  animals?  Are  the  coats  on  the  horses 
and  cows  any  thicker  than  they  are  in  the  summer  time?  Do  these  animals  require 
any  different  food  or  care  during  this  season?  Do  you  know  any  wild  mammals  that 
hibernate  during  the  winter  months?  (While  the  children  in  Illinois  have  never 
seen  any  of  these  animals  they  have  probably  read  of  the  bear  which  hibernates 
during  the  winter.) 


81 

Are  there  as  many  birds  here  during  the  winter  as  in  the  other  seasons?  What 
has  become  of  them?  (Many  of  them  have  taken  on  the  habit  of  moving  southward 
at  the  approach  of  the  winter  season.) 

LESSON  8. — Spend  some  time  discussing  what  effect  the  weather  has  on  our- 
selves. Effects  of  cloudy  weather?  Fair!  Cold?  Hot?  etc.  Do  you  feel  more 
like  working  on  some  days  than  others  simply  because  the  weather  is  fair?  Have  the 
children  think  of  all  the  different  things  we  do  to  protect  ourselves  from  the  weather, 
such  as  shelter  of  various  kinds,  houses,  clothing,  making  of  fires,  etc.  Lead  the 
children  to  see  that  if  it  had  not  been  for  weather  the  people  ages  ago  probably 
would  never  have  thought  of  building  houses.  Now  we  build  our  houses  for  other 
reasons  than  simply  to  have  a  protection  from  the  weather,  but  after  all  this  is  the 
main  reason  for  having  houses. 

LESSON  9. — At  the  end  of  the  month  have  the  pupils  make  a  short  summary 
derived  from  their  observations.  How  many  fair  days?  How  many  cloudy?  How 
many  in  which  there  was  precipitation  ?  What  was  the  general  direction  of  the  wind 
for  the  month?  What  was  the  direction  of  the  wind  when  the  temperature  was 
warmest?  When  the  temperature  was  coldest?  From  what  direction  did  the  rain 
come?  From  what  direction  did  the  snow  come?  What  was  the  direction  of  the 
wind  during  the  cloudy  weather?,  etc. 

Have  them  note  other  relations.  Is  a  cloudy  night  warmer  or  colder  than  a 
clear  night?  You  often  hear  people  say  in  the  early  fall:  "If  it  clears  it  will 
freeze  tonight.''  Can  you  see  why  this  is  true?  After  you  have  studied  radiant 
heat,  you  will  understand  better  how  the  clouds  act  as  a  screen  to  keep  the  heat 
close  to  the  earth.  Which  seems  colder,  a  windy  day  or  a  calm  one?  Why? 

LESSON  10.— WATEE  SUPPLY  OF  HOME  AND  SCHOOL.— Review  the 
source  of  water  in  the  soil  studied  in  November.  Ask  each  child  to  report  upon  the 
source  of  water  used  about  their  homes.  Let  each  child  tell  the  number  of  wells 
they  have  on  their  farms.  Who  have  cisterns? 

LESSON  11. — Discuss  different  kinds  of  wells.  Who  have  dug  wells?  How 
deep  are  they?  How  wide?  With  what  are  they  walled  up?  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  wall  up  a  well?  Where  does  the  water  come  from  in  one  of  these  wells?  You 
remember  that  in  the  lessons  on  soil  we  found  free  water  standing  among  the  spaces 
in  the  soil.  If  we  dig  a  hole  in  ground  that  is  saturated  with  water  what  will 
happen?  How  high  will  water  stand  in  the  well?  (It  will  stand  as  high  as  the  free 
water  stands  in  the  ground.)  As  the  free  water  percolates  farther  down  in  the  soil 
what  will  take  place  in  the  well?  (The  pupils  will  readily  see  that  the  water  in 
the  well  will  always  be  on  a  level  with  the  free  water  in  the  ground.)  Why  do 
wells  of  this  sort  go  dry  during  the  drought  of  summer?  These  are  called  shallow 
wells. 

LESSON  12. — Some  dug  wells  are  much  deeper  than  those  known  as  shallow 
wells.  Some  are  thirty,  forty,  or  even  fifty  feet  deep.  Has  any  one  a  well  of  this 
sort?  Does  it  ever  go  dry?  In  wells  of  this  sort  the  supply  of  water  comes  from 
what  is  called  a  vein  that  remains  practically  constant  for  years.  Have  the  children 
try  to  get  a  clear  picture  of  what  a  vein  of  water  is.  If  we  should  dig  down  twenty, 
thirty,  or  forty  feet  would  we  find  the  same  kind  of  soil  all  the  way  down?  The 
children  will  be  able  to  answer  from  their  geography  work  that  various  layers  are 
found,  sometimes  a  layer  of  sand,  then  of  silt,  or  clay,  or  even  solid  rock.  Are  all 
the  layers  parallel  to  the  earth's  surface?  (In  some  places  instead  of  being  parallel 
they  are  oblique  or  even  wavy.)  Let  some  child  pass  to  the  board  and  draw  a 
waved  line  to  show  a  layer  of  clay  a  number  of  feet  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Above  this  draw  another  line  representing  a  layer  of  sand.  Above  this  another  of 
clay  and  then  sand  or  some  other  soil  reaching  to  the  surface.  Let  us  suppose  that 
the  layer  of  sand  farthest  down  slopes  so  that  it  comes  to  the  surface  many  miles 
away.  If  it  rains  on  this  surface  what  will  become  of  the  water?  (It  will,  of  course, 
percolate  downward  thru  the  sand.)  Why  does  it  not  go  on  down  thru  the  clay? 
You  remember  in  the  experiment  with  the  clay  in  the  lamp  chimneys  that  it  took 
a  long  time  for  the  water  to  move  downward  thru  this.  It  is  the  same  in  the  ground. 
So  the  sand  becomes  filled  with  water.  Now  if  we  dig  a  well  down  into  this  layer 
of  sand  what  will  happen?  The  children  will  see  that  the  water  will  fill  the  well 
standing  as  high  as  the  water  stands  in  the  layer  of  sand  which  comes  to  the  surface 
miles  away. 


82 

LESSON  13. — Are  there  any  driven  or  drilled  wells  in  the  district?  How  deep 
are  they?  How  are  they  made?  Some  of  the  boys  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  describe 
the  digging  of  a  drilled  well.  With  what  are  these  wells  walled?  (Usually  with 
a  galvanized  pipe  very  much  like  a  gas  pipe.)  In  driven  wells  the  pipe  is  driven 
into  the  ground  as  the  hole  is  made.  In  the  drilled  well  the  soil  and  material  are 
taken  out  of  the  well  and  the  pipe  put  down  afterwards.  Usually  then,  the  drilled 
well  has  a  little  wider  pipe  than  the  driven  well.  In  Illinois  most  of  the  deep  wells 
are  drilled.  Where  does  the  water  supply  come  from  in  these  wells?  It  is  supplied 
in  much  the  same  way  that  it  is  in  the  deep  dug  wells,  only  the  layer  of  sand  con- 
taining the  water  is  much  farther  down  in  the  ground.  In  some  cases  these  wells 
are  two  hundred  feet  deep.  Sometimes  the  water  in  one  of  these  drilled  wells  rises 
almost  to  the  top  of  the  well.  Can  you  explain  why  this  is  so  ? 

LESSON  14. — Which  of  the  wells  discussed  do  you  think  is  likely  to  afford  the 
purest  water?  (The  drilled  well  is  usually  free  from  all  bacteria  that  are  likely  to 
be  present  in  shallow  wells.)  Why?  We  have  only  to  think  of  the  water  percolating 
thru  the  soil  to  know  that  this  water  may  carry  with  it  different  kinds  of  bacteria 
that  are  dangerous  to  human  beings.  Water  may  come  from  some  outbuildings  or 
from  barns  Or  other  places  where  it  is  certain  there  are  germs  of  disease.  It  has 
been  proved  beyond  doubt  that  typhoid  fever  germs  are  frequently  found  in  shallow 
well  water.  Did  you  ever  see  any  one  washing  his  hands  at  a  pump  and  letting  the 
water  from  his  hands  run  down  upon  the  cover  of  the  well,  some  of  it  going  back 
into  the  well?  Sometimes  we  take  a  drink  at  a  pump  and  throw  the  water  that  is 
left  where  it  may  run  back  into  the  well.  May  a  deep  dug  well  also  have  bacteria 
carried  into  it  by  the  free  water  in  the  soil?  (It  certainly  may  if  it  is  walled  all 
the  way  with  brick.  You  can  easily  see  that  the  water  near  the  surface  may  make 
its  way  thru  the  soil  into  the  deep  well.)  Can  you  think  of  any  way  in  which  this 
may  be  prevented?  Some  people  finish  the  upper  five  or  six  feet  of  a  deep  well  with 
cement.  They  make  this  cement  wall  extend  five  or  six  inches  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  They  see  to  it,  also,  that  a  tight  cover  is  kept  over  the  well.  In  this 
way  you  see  the  water  from  the  deep  vein  only  enters  the  well.  This  is  usually 
free  from  bacteria. 

LESSON  15. — How  is  water  obtained  from  the  wells  at  home?  Who  has  a  lift 
or  suction  pump?  Has  any  one  an  old-fashioned  chain  pump?  Are  there  any  wind 
mills  in  the  district?  How  does  a  wind  mill  pump  water?  Have  the  children  name 
the  parts  of  the  wind  mill.  (Tower,  wheel,  weather  vane,  and  a  governing  device 
to  regulate  the  movement  of  the  wheel  so  it  will  not  move  too  rapidly  when  the  wind 
is  high.)  How  is  the  wind  mill  fastened  to  the  pump?  (In  most  cases  there  is  a 
rod  or  shaft  that  is  attached  to  the  piston  rod  of  the  pump.  As  the  wheel  turns 
in  the  wind  the  piston  of  the  pump  is  moved  up  and  down.)  What  arrangements  are 
made  so  that  a  quantity  of  water  may  be  stored  for  the  stock?  How  many  have 
a  wooden  tank  or  trough?  Who  has  a  galvanized  iron  one?  How  is  the  water  carried 
into  the  home?  Let  the  children  report  on  this.  Has  any  one  a  storage  tank  placed 
high  enough  so  that  the  water  may  be  piped  into  the  house?  Many  farmers  are 
placing  storage  tanks  somewhere  near  the  house  so  that  the  water  may  be  piped  to 
any  part  of  the  house.  Do  you  not  think  this  is  a  great  improvement  over  carrying 
in  pails  all  the  water  that  is  needed?  Who  has  a  cistern  pump  in  the  kitchen?  Does 
any  one  use  cistern  water  for  all  purposes  about  the  house?  Has  the  cistern  a  filter? 
Do  you  know  wThat  a  filter  in  an  ordinary  cistern  is  made  of?  Some  cisterns  have 
a  filter  placed  in  the  ground  outside  the  cistern  made  chiefly  of  charcoal.  The  water 
from  the  roof  passes  through  the  charcoal  before  it  goes  into  the  cistern.  The  char- 
coal absorbs  much  of  the  impurities  from  the  water.  Some  cisterns  have  a  wall 
of  brick  built  about  half  way  up  in  the  middle,  the  water  passes  into  the  cistern  on 
one  side  and  passes  through  the  wall  and  is  used  from  the  other  side.  Do  you  think 
filters  of  this  sort  will  remove  bacteria  from  the  water?  (They  do  not.  They  simply 
remove  dust  particles  and  make  the  water  clearer,  but  bacteria,  if  there  are  any, 
pass  thru  the  filter.) 

LESSON  16. — How  is  the  school  supplied  with  water?  If  there  is  a  well  is  it 
arranged  so  that  any  surface  water  can  get  into  it?  Do  all  the  children  have 
individual  drinking  cups?  Why  have  so  many  state  legislatures  passed  a  law  that 
there  shall  be  no  public  drinking  cups?  (This  has  been  done  because  these  men 
believe  that  there  is  much  danger  of  contracting  diseases  from  the  public  drinking 


83 

cup.  If  some  one  with  tonsilitis,  for  example,  should  drink  from  a  cup  probably 
some  of  the  germs  would  remain  on  the  edge  of  the  cup.  The  next  child  who  drank 
would  be  likely  to  get  some  of  the  germs  and  contract  the  disease.)  Do  you  keep 
a  pail  of  water  uncovered  in  the  school  room?  Why  is  this  not  a  good  thing  to  do? 
Dust  of  various  kinds  and  germs  from  the  air  are  likely  to  settle  in  it. 

LESSOX  17. — A  lesson  on  the  value  and  importance  of  water  about  the  home 
will  be  worth  while.  Let  the  children  suggest  all  the  uses  of  water  that  they  know 
about  the  house  and  barns.  Discuss  its  important  connection  with  the  growing  of 
plants  in  the  fields  and  garden. 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  JAXUAEY. — Systems  of  lighting  in  the  home  and  school.  His- 
tory of  lighting.  Candles.  How  made.  Study  of  a  candle  flame.  Necessity  of 
air  (oxygen).  Parts  of  the  kerosene  lamp.  How  the  kerosene  lamp  burns.  Differ- 
ent kinds.  Xature  and  uses  of  kerosene.  Petroleum  and  its  products. 

The  eye.  Parts  of  the  eye.  Muscles;  tear  gland;  lids;  lashes;  eyelashes,  etc. 
Kinds  of  light  best  suited  to  the  eye.  Danger  of  reading  in  a  strong  light  or  by 
twilight,  when  lying  down,  when  the  eyes  smart ;  diseases  of  the  eye ;  how  to  prevent; 
testing  of  eyes.  Simple  review  of  the  use  of  food  and  of  respiration. 

LESSOX  1. — Have  the  children  name  all  the  different  methods  of  lighting  that 
they  have  in  their  homes  and  the  school.  Discuss  briefly  the  history  of  lighting. 
Have  the  children  think  of  a  time  in  Illinois  when  people  were  dependent  largely 
upon  light  from  the  fire  place  or  from  pine  knots.  Later  they  used  candles.  Some- 
times they  used  a  simple  lamp  made  with  a  cup  in  which  grease  was  placed  with  a 
piece  of  old  toweling  twisted  to  form  a  wick.  Tell  the  children  to  ask  their  grand- 
parents to  tell  them  about  these  simple  grease  lamps.  How  were  candles  made  in 
those  early  days.  Perhaps  some  one  in  the  neighborhood  may  have  some  old  candle 
molds  which  will  add  to  the  interest  of  this  study.  The  children  should  know  that 
at  first  all  the  candles  were  made  by  a  method  called  dipping.  The  strings  for  the 
wicks  were  tied  to  a  stick  a  foot  or  two  in  length.  Beef  tallow  was  melted  in  large 
kettles.  The  strings  were  dipped  into  the  hot  tallow  then  taken  out  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  minutes  until  the  tallow  hardened,  then  they  were  dipped  in  again  just 
for  a  moment.  This  was  repeated  again  and  again  until  the  candles  were  large 
enough  for  use.  You  can  imagine  how  long  a  time  it  took  during  the  winter  to 
make  enough  candles  to  last  the  family  for  a  whole  year. 

LESSOX  2. — The  other  method  of  making  candles  was  by  means  of  the  candle 
mold.  Tell  the  children  how  this  was  done.  If  you  have  no  mold,  pictures  will 
help  if  they  are  available.  Tell  the  children  how  our  grandmothers  strung  the  mold? 
passing  in  the  wicking  with  large  darning  needles.  The  wicks  were  tied  fast  with 
a  small  stick  which  was  laid  across  the  holes  in  the  top  of  the  mold  and  then  the 
hot  tallow  was  poured  into  the  mold  and  allowed  to  cool.  When  cold,  hot  water  was 
poured  over  the  outside  of  the  mold  to  loosen  the  candles,  which  were  then  pulled 
out  by  the  sticks.  Candles  are  made  in  the  same  way  today,  but  most  of  our  can- 
dles are  made  of  paraffin  instead  of  tallow.  The  teacher  should  have  a  few  candles 
for  the  children  to  examine. 

LESSOX  3. — For  this  lesson  a  candle  or  a  portion  of  a  candle  is  needed.  Light 
the  candle  and  notice  how  it  burns.  After  is  has  burned  a  short  time  notice  the 
shape  of  the  top  of  the  candle.  What  is  in  the  hollow  cup?  What  forms  the  sides 
of  the  cup?  Does  the  flame  come  down  to  the  surface  of  the  tallow?  Where  is  the 
flame  widest  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  flame  at  the  top  ?  When  the  candle  has  been 
burning  for  some  time  blow  out  the  flame.  Can  you  see  anything  coming  from  the 
end  of  the  wick?  What  is  the  color  of  the  smoke?  What  do  you  think  this  smoke 
is?  Let  us  try  to  answer  this  by  thinking  of  something  in  the  home  and  that  is 
a  teakettle  full  of  water.  When  the  water  begins  to  get  hot  what  can  you  see  com- 
ing from  the  spout  of  the  teakettle?  What  was  the  steam  a  few  minutes  before? 
The  children  will  no  doubt  say  that  the  steam  was  first  water.  The  heat  changed 
the  water  into  steam  or  vapor.  Think  what  effect  the  heat  has  upon  the  melted 
paraffin  in  the  wick  of  the  candle.  It  changes  it  into  vapor.  Xow  look  at  your 
burning  candle.  In  how  many  forms  do  you  see  paraffin?  The  children  should  be 
able  to  see  paraffin  in  three  forms,  solid,  liquid,  and  vapor. 


84 

LESSON  4. — Will  the  paraffin  vapor  burn?  Light  the  candle  as  you  did  in 
Lesson  3.  Now  blow  out  the  flame.  Have  a  lighted  match  ready.  The  minute  the 
flame  is  out  apply  the  lighted  match  to  the  smoke  or  paraffin  vapor.  Does  it  take 
fire?  Watch  to  see  how  it  burns  down  to  the  wick  and,  light  the  candle.  Try  this 
a  number  of  times  until  you  are  certain  that  the  vapor  takes  fire  and  burns.  What 
is  it,  then,  that  is  really  burning  in  the  candle?  The  children  will  probably  be  ready 
to  say  that  it  is  the  paraffin  vapor.  Let  us  name,  then  all  the  things  that  happen 
in  the  burning  candle.  The  heat  melts  the  paraffin,  the  melted  paraffin  goes  up 
through  the  wick  and  is  there  changed  into  vapor  and  then  burns. 

LESSON  5. — What  else  is  needed  to  make  the  flame  of  the  candle?  Place  a 
small  piece  of  candle  upon  the  table.  Light  it.  When  it  is  burning  brightly  place 
a  fruit  jar  over  it  and  watch  to  see  what  happens.  Take  the  fruit  jar  off,  light 
the  candle  again  and  place  a  tumbler  over  it.  Does  the  flame  go  out  any  sooner 
under  the  tumbler  than  it  did  under  the  jar?  What  was  in  the  jar  and  the  tumbler 
before  you  turned  them  over  the  candle?  (You  may  have  to  help  the  children  to 
see  that  they  were  both  full  of  air.)  Why  did  the  flame  go  out?  (It  was  luck 
of  air  that  caused  the  flame  to  gradually  die  out.)  Can  you  have  any  flame  without 
air?  The  part  of  air  that  is  necessary  for  a  flame  is  called  oxygen.  What  are  the 
two  things  then  that  make  the  flame  of  the  candle?  (Paraffin  vapor  and  oxygen.) 

LESSON  6. — For  this  lesson  you  need  a  kerosene  lamp.  Have  the  children, 
with  the  lamp  before  them,  name  the  parts  of  the  lamp;  bowl,  wick,  burner  and 
chimney.  Light  the  lamp  and  put  the  chimney  on.  Watch  the  flame.  Is  it  steady? 
Blow  out  the  flame  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  moments  then  remove  the  chimney. 
Eelight  the  lamp  and  leave  the  chimney  off.  Is  the  flame  as  steady  as  it  was 
before?  What  then,  is  one  use  of  the  chimney?  Do  you  think  it  is  the  kerosene 
vapor  that  burns?  Try  the  same  experiment  that  you  did  with  the  candle  to  see 
if  the  smoke  that  is  coming  from  the  wick  will  catch  fire.  Do  you  think  air  is  as 
necessary  as  it  was  for  the  burning  of  the  candle?  Can  you  see  any  way  arranged 
for  the  air  to  get  to  the  burning  wick.  The  children  will  easily  find  the  perforated 
bottom  in  the  burner  where  the  air  enters.  Trace  the  air  through  the  chimney  up 
to  the  flame.  To  do  this  light  a  small  splinter  of  wood,  let  it  burn  for  a  moment 
then  blow  out  the  flame  and  hold  the  smoking  splinter  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
burner.  You  will  be  able  to  see  the  smoke  moving  upward  through  the  perforated 
base.  Now  hold  the  smoking  splinter  at  the  top  of  the  chimney  and  you  will  see 
that  the  currents  of  air  are  moving  outward  at  the  top.  Can  you  see  what  the  cap 
of  the  burner  does?  If  you  will  loosen  the  cap  a  little  and  light  the  lamp  you  will 
see  that  the  light  is  smoky  and  dim.  The  cap  helps  to  direct  the  air  toward  the 
flame.  You  will  see  it  is  shaped  just  right  to  do  this.  Now  have  the  children  name 
all  the  parts  of  the  lamp  and  tell  what  each  part  is  for. 

LESSON  7. — Discuss  the  different  kinds  of  kerosene  lamps  that  the  children 
have  seen.  Some  may  have  the  round  wick  lamps.  These  have  a  tube  extending 
down  through  the  center  of  the  bowl  so  that  the  air  passes  up  and  supplies  the  in- 
side of  the  wick,  while  the  outside  of  the  wick  is  supplied  by  air  through  the  per- 
forated base.  Has  anyone  other  kinds  of  lights  than  kerosene  lamps?  Perhaps  some 
one  in  the  neighborhood  has  a  gasoline  gas  machine  and  makes  his  own  gas  lights. 
Some  may  have  acetylene  gas  light,  and  some  if  they  live  near  town,  have  electric 
lights.  If  there  are  any  of  these  lights  have  the  children  tell  how  they  work,  and 
what  kind  of  light  they  make. 

LESSON  8. — Spend  one  lesson  talking  about  where  we  obtain  kerosene  and 
gasoline.  Perhaps  the  children  have  already  learned  something  about  this  in  their 
geography.  They  should  know  at  least  that  kerosene,  gasoline,  paraffin  and  some 
other  things  are  made  from  crude  oil  or  petroleum  and  that  this  is  found  in  the 
ground.  Where  are  the  oil  wells  in  Illinois?  (There  are  a  number  of  large  and  very 
important  oil  wells  in  the  south  eastern  part  of  our  state.)  Crude  oil  or  petroleum 
is  dark  in  color  and  almost  as  thick  as  molasses.  It  is  really  a  mixture  of  a  number 
of  different  liquids.  To  obtain  these  different  liquids  the  petroleum  is  heated  and 
these  liquids  are  turned  into  vapor.  The  vapor  is  caught  in  large  vessels  and  cooled 
so  that  it  is  changed  back  into  liquid  again.  The  lightest  liquid  changes  to  vapor 
first  and  so  it  is  caught  by  itself.  Gasoline  is  lighter  than  kerosene  so  it  vaporizes 
and  is  obtained  before  kerosene.  There  is  more  kerosene  in  petroleum  than  any  of 
the  other  products.  If  you  have  had  in  your  school  the  petroleum  products  of  the 


85 

Geographical  Museum  you  have  seen  all  the  different  things  that  are  made  from 
petroleum,  as  gasoline,  kerosene,  paraffin,  vaseline.  Most  of  the  chewing  gum  is 
made  from  petroleum.  Have  the  children  name  all  the  uses  of  kerosene  and  gasoline 
that  they  know.  Which  one  is  more  dangerous  to  use?  Can  you  see  why  gasoline 
is  more  dangerous  than  kerosene?  It  is  because  it  changes  to  vapor  so  much  more 
readily  and  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  That  is  the  reason  it  is  never  safe  to 
keep  the  gasoline  can  in  the  home.  The  only  safe  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  it  out  of 
doors  away  from  the  house.  , 

LESSONS  9  AND  10. — Eyes  and  Light. — Eeview  briefly  all  of  the  senses  and 
the  sense  organs.  From  the  physiology  text  study  the  parts  of  the  eye.  Look  in 
the  mirror  and  find  all  the  parts  that  are  visible  in  your  own  eyes,  or  look  at  your 
neighbor's  eye  and  find  all  the  visible  parts.  What  parts  are  especially  adapted 
to  protect  the  eye?  How  do  the  eyebrows  help?  The  lashes?  Tears?  Lids?  How 
does  the  eye  move?  Look  at  the  picture  of  the  eye.  Find  the  muscles  that  are 
attached  to  the  eye  ball. 

LESSONS  11,  12,  AND  13. — Care  of  the  eyes. — Discuss  how  important  good  eye- 
sight is.  How  dependent  we  are  upon  our  eyes  for  much  of  our  work  and  our 
pleasure.  Help  the  children  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  taking  care  of  their  eyes. 
In  the  care  of  the  eyes  one  of  the  most  important  things  is  to  have  the  right  kind 
of  light  to  work  and  to  study  by.  The  best  light  is  daylight  but  we  need  to  know 
how  to  regulate  the  amount  of  sunlight  that  there  is  in  a  room.  We  should  have 
plenty  of  light  but  should  never  work  with  the  sunlight  falling  directly  upon  our 
book  or  desk  or  striking  us  full  in  the  face.  WTien  you  are  doing  close  work  of  any 
kind  the  light  should  come  from  above  and  if  possible  from  behind.  Look  at  your 
windows  in  the  schoolroom.  Are  the  shades  arranged  so  that  you  can  have  the  top 
half  down,  or  the  lower  half  up  as  you  choose?  It  is  very  easy  to  have  the  shades 
arranged  in  this  manner.  You  see  it  will  then  be  possible  to  have  the  lower  part  of 
the  window  screened  and  allow  the  light  to  come  in  from  the  upper  part  when  it 
is  best  to  have  it  come  from  that  direction.  When  you  use  a  lamp  never  sit  with  the 
lamp  facing  you,  but  if  possible  sit  so  that  the  light  will  come  from  behind  and  over 
your  left  shoulder.  Hold  your  paper  so  there  will  not  be  a  reflected  glare.  How 
many  of  you  have  shades  on  your  lamps  at  home?  No  lamp  without  a  shade  should 
be  used  for  reading  or  for  any  other  purpose  except  to  light  up  a  room. 

To  use  the  eyes  continuously  without  rest  for  an  hour  or  two  is  never  a  good 
thing  to  do.  If  you  must  work  for  this  length  of  time  at  close  work,  rest  the  eyes 
for  a  few  moments  occasionally.  You  may  do  this  by  closing  them  a  short  time  or 
by  looking  from  your  work  and  out  of  the  window  or  by  rising  and  taking  a  brief 
time  for  exercising  the  whole  body. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  careful  test  of  the  pupils'  eyes,  to  determine  whether 
any  are  near  sighted  or  far  sighted.  A  card  for  testing  the  eyes  may  be  obtained 
from  an  optician.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the  near  sighted  pupils  have 
seats  near  the  blackboard,  maps,  and  other  things  that  require  close  looking.  Of 
course  the  best  plan  when  you  suspect  your  eyes  are  not  right  is  to  see  a  good 
occulist.  If  you  cannot  see  the  words  in  your  reader  clearly  then  there  is  something 
wrong  and  steps  should  be  taken  to  rectify  it.  There  are  certain  things  that  you 
need  to  think  about  that  need  to  be  avoided.  Among  others  are  reading  when  lying 
down,  continuing  to  read  and  study  when  the  eyes  begin  to  smart,  or  reading  in  a 
moving  train  or  a  swing.  Many  children  injure  their  eyes  permanently  in  this  way. 

Are  there  any  diseases  of  the  eyes?  Perhaps  some  of  the  children  may  have 
some  diseases  that  are  prevalent  in  the  neighborhood.  Many  of  the  eye  diseases  are 
contagious.  They  are  caused  by  disease  germs.  These  germs  are  carried  from  one 
person  to  another.  Can  you  name  some  of  the  ways  by  which  the  germs  can  be 
carried.  If  some  one  has  sore  eyes  and  rubs  his  eyes  with  hand  and  then  touches 
a  book  or  desk,  how  may  some  other  child  get  these  germs  into  his  eyes?  Do  you 
know  of  any  schools  where  the  children  all  wipe  on  the  same  towel?  Do  you  think 
there  is  any  danger  of  spreading  eye  disease  in  this  way? 

Make  the  children  feel  that  they  can  do  much  toward  taking  care  of  their  own 
eyes. 

LESSONS  14-16. — In  the  fifth  year  the  children  made  a  study  of  food  and  the 
digestive  system.  It  will  be  worth  while  to  spend  one  or  two  lessons  reviewing  the 
chief  points  of  the  work,  especially  why  food  is  necessary.  How  the  food  is  prepared 


86 

to  enter  the  blood,  and  how  to  take  care  of  our  food.  In  the  same  way  review  the 
work  of  respiration.  What  are  the  chief  organs  of  respiration?  Movements  of 
respiration.  Importance  of  good  air. 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOR  FEBRUARY. — Special  study  of  circulation.  Blood.  Neces- 
sity of  circulation.  Channels  of  circulation.  Heart;  arteries;  veins,  capillaries. 
Demonstration  of  beef  or  pig  heart.  Experiments  showing  pulse  rate,  flow  of  blood 
in  veins  and  capillaries.  Diseases  that  enter  the  body  through  the  blood.  Effect 
of  alcohol  and  tobacco  upon  circulation. 

Skin,  structure.  Perspiration;  regulation  of  the  body  temperature. 

LESSONS  1  AND  2. — Blood.  What  is  the  chief  function  of  the  blood.  The 
children  should  think  of  the  blood  as  the  carrier  of  everything  that  needs  to  be 
moved  from  .one  part  of  the  body  to  another.  Name  things  that  the  blood  car- 
ries; digested  food,  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  waste  products.  How  does  the 
blood  do  its  work  as  a  carrier?  What  keeps  it  moving  around  through  the  body? 

Heart. — Study  the  heart  and  the  work  it  does  from  your  physiology.  Place 
your  hand  on  your  left  side  and  feel  your  heart  as  it  beats.  That  is,  as  it 
pumps  the  blood  all  over  the  body.  If  possible  obtain  a  heart  either  of  a  beef  or 
a  pig.  Study  the  parts,  comparing  with  pictures  in  the  physiology. 

LESSON  3. — How  does  the  blood  get  from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body? 
Study  the  arteries  in  your  book.  Find  the  big  arteries  extending  from  the  heart. 
Place  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  your  right  hand  on  the  wrist  of  your  left  arm  just 
below  thumb  and  feel  the  beating  that  we  call  the  pulse.  What  is  the  pulse?  It 
is  the  movement  of  the  walls  of  a  large  artery  as  the  heart  pumps  blood  through 
it.  Count  the  number  of  times  it  beats  during  one  minute. 

LESSON  4. — The  veins.  Look  on  the  back  of  your  hands  for  blood  tubes  that 
lie  near  the  surface.  What  are  these?  Study  about  the  veins  in  the  physiology. 
Press  with  your  finger  on  one  of  the  large  veins  and  watch  to  see  how  full  the 
veins  of  your  hand  become  further  up  toward  the  fingers.  That  is  because  you 
have  stopped  the  flow  of  the  blood  up  your  arm. 

LESSON  5. — Capillaries. — Study  about  the  capillaries  in  your  physiology  find- 
ing out  just  what  they  are  like  and  where  situated.  Press  hard  on  the  back  of 
your  hand.  How  does  the  spot  look  the  moment  you  take  your  finger  away? 
Why  does  it  look  white?  It  is  because  you  have,  for  the  moment,  pressed  the 
blood  out  of  the  capillaries.  This  gives  you  some  idea  of  the  great  number  of 
these  tiny  tubes  that  ramify  through  all  the  tissues  of  your  body.  Can  you  prick 
your  finger  or  hand  anywhere  with  the  finest  needle  you  have  without  breaking 
the  walls  of  some  of  the  capillaries? 

LESSON  6. — Study  the  composition  of  the  blood  in  your  physiology,  until 
you  have  the  proper  notion  of  all  of  its  parts,  serum,  red  corpuscles,  and  white 
corpuscles.  In  connection  with  this  study  impress  upon  the  children  that  the  blood 
is  made  up  largely  of  digested  food  and  oxygen.  Good  blood,  then,  means  that 
you  eat  the  right  kind  of  food  and  breathe  plenty  of  fresh  air.  When  the  blood 
is  in  good  condition  it  means,  too  that  it  will  be  more  likely  to  destroy  the  poisons 
that  come  from  disease  germs  that  get  into  the  blood.  Good  blood  means  some- 
thing else,  too.  It  means  that  we  shall  be  in  the  best  condition  to  do  our  best  work 
with  our  hands  and  with  our  minds. 

What  are  some  of  the  things  that  make  the  blood  flow  faster?  Feel  the  dif- 
ference in  the  beating  of  your  heart  when  you  are  sitting  still  and  after  you  have 
t  exercised  in  some  wray  for  a  few  minutes.  One  of  the  good  results  of  exercise  is 
to  cause  the  blood  to  flow  more  rapidly  through  the  body.  Do  you  think  there  may 
be  danger  of  exercising  too  vigorously?  There  is  some  danger.  Moderate  exercise 
is  good  for  us  but  we  may  permanently  injure  the  heart  by  over  exercising.  Run- 
ning for  too  long  a  time,  racing  with  a  bicycle  for  a  long  period,  jumping  rope 
too  long  all  may  injure  the  heart. 

LESSON  7. — Discuss  how  to  keep  the  blood  in  good  condition  and  the  heart 
doing  its  work  properly.  Repeat  what  has  already  been  said  about  fresh  air,  whole- 
some food,  and  moderate  exercise.  There  are  some  other  things  besides  violent 


87 

exercise  that  we  must  avoid  if  we  keep  the  ciculatory  system  in  good  condition. 
We  must  avoid  the  use  of  alcohol  and  tobacco.  Study  what  your  physiology  says 
about  this.  You  should  realize  that  alcohol  often  causes  the  heart  to  fail  to  do 
its  work  properly.  Alcohol  also  acts  upon  the  white  blood  corpuscles  in  such  a 
way  that  they  cannot  do  their  work  of  destroying  the  poisons  that  come  from 
disease  germs,  hence  one  who  uses  alcohol  to  excess  is  more  likely  to  take  typhoid 
or  other  contagious  diseases  than  one  who  does  not  use  alcohol.  Tobacco,  too, 
has  somewhat  the  same  effect.  If  you  really  want  to  be  strong  and  well  the  only 
safe  plan  is  to  leave  both  of  these  stimulants  alone. 

LESSON  8. — One  lesson  may  well  be  given  on  how  to  stop  a  bleeding  wound. 
If  the  physiology  treats  this  topic  have  the  children  study  it  from  the  book.  If 
a  large  vessel  is  cut  can  you  tell  whether  it  is  an  artery  or  a  vein?  If  the  blood 
flows  in  a  steady  stream  it  is  coming  from  a  vein;  if  it  spurts,  it  is  from  an  ar- 
tery. In  case  of  a  cut  artery  tie  a  hard  knot  in  a  handkerchief  or  cord.  Place  this 
above  the  cut  and  twist  it  tightly.  If  a  vein  is  cut  press  your  finger  below  the 
wound  and  tie  the  handkerchief  tightly  in  the  same  place. 

*    LESSON   9. — What   is  lymph  and  where  is  it   found  in  the   body?     Help  the 

children  to  picture  lymph  tubes  ramifying  through  the  muscles  and  tissues  of  the 

body  filled  with  a  white  liquid.  Find  the  picture  of  the  lymphatic  duct  in  the 
book  and  study  what  lymph  is  and  how  it  gets  into  the  blood. 

LESSON  10. — Although  children  at  this  age  may  not  be  able  to  understand 
all  that  occurs  in  the  cells  and  {issues  of  the  body  yet  they  can  know  a  few  of 
the  fundamental  facts  concerning  the  action  which  takes  place  when  oxygen  and 
food  meet  in  the  cells  of  the  tissues  of  the  body.  This  meeting  of  the  oxygen 
and  digested  food  results  in  two  things;  heat  of  the  body  is  produced,  and  by  this 
union  we  are  given  energy  or  power  to  do  our  work.  Summarize  all  the  different 
things  that  the  circulatory  system  does. 

LESSON  11. — Skin. — Discuss  briefly  the  use  of  the  skin  as  a  protection  of 
the  body.  Study  the  structure  of  the  skin  as  treated  in  the  physiology.  If  you 
have  a  lens  look  on  the  back  of  your  hand  to  find  the  scaly  outside  layer  of  cells. 
Notice  the  effect  of  cold  and  heat  on  the  amount  of  blood  at  the  surface  of  the 
body.  Study  the  sweat  glands;  where  situated;  structure  of  oil  glands. 

LESSONS  12  AND  13. — What  are  the  functions  of  the  skin?  Besides  acting 
as  a  covering  for  the  body  the  skin  is  the  chief  heat  regulator  of  the  body.  Do 
you  know  what  the  temperature  of  a  healthy  person  is?  (It  is  a  little  over  98 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  Winter  and  summer  it  is  the  same.)  How  can  it  remain 
the  same  no  matter  how  hot  the  weather  is?  It  is  because  the  skin  regulates  the 
heat.  How  does  it  do  this?  One  way  is  that  the  blood  comes  to  the  surface  and 
is  cooled.  When  we  are  hot  there  is  more  blood  at  the  surface  than  when  we  are 
cool.  In  this  way,  then,  the  body  is  cooled  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  most  im- 
portant method  of  regulating  the  heat  is  by  means  of  the  perspiration.  To  under- 
stand how  it  does  this  we  shall  perform  two  or  three  simple  experiments. 

Fill  a  pan  or  cup  exactly  half  full  of  water  and  set  it  in  the  warmest  place 
in  the  room.  Next  day  measure  the  water  carefully.  Is  there  as  much  water  as 
there  was  the  day  before  ?  What  has  become  of  it  ?  We  say  it  has  evaporated, 
which  means  that  the  water  has  changed  into  an  invisible  gas  or  vapor  and  has 
gone  off  into  the  air.  The  same  thing  happens  when  you  boil  water,  with  one 
difference,  the  evaporation  goes  on  more  quickly  when  the  water  is  boiling.  Eub 
a  little  water  with  your  finger  on  the  back  of  your  hand.  Hold  the  hand  up  in 
the  air  waving  it  gently.  How  does  the  wet  spot  feel?  Why  does  it  feel  cool? 
What  did  the  water  do  as  you  held  it  in  the  air?  (The  water  evaporated.)  If 
you  have  a  thermometer  in  the  school  dip  the  bulb  into  the  water  and  hold  it  in  the 
air  waving  it  gently  back  and  forth  until  the  water  has  evaporated.  Does  the 
mercury  rise  or  fall?  From  all  these  experiments  what  do  you  conclude  as  to  the 
effect  of  evaporation  of  liquids  on  surrounding  bodies?  (It  cools  the  bodies  be- 
cause heat  is  used  in  changing  water  into  vapor.)  Why  does  scrubbing  porches 
on  a  hot  summer  day  make  the  air  around  the  house  seem  cool?  (For  the  same 
reason  the  water  in  evaporating  uses  up  the  heat  of  the  porch  and  really  for  a 
short  time  cools  the  air.)  Now  think  what  takes  place  when  perspiration  comes 
to  the  surface  of  our  bodies.  As  it  evaporates  it  uses  up  some  of  the  heat  of  our 
bodies  as  it  changes  into  vapor.  The  warmer  you  are,  and  the  more  you  perspire 


88 

the  more  heat  is  used  in  evaporating  the  perspiration,  so  your  temperature  is  kept 
about  the  same  all  the  time. 

LESSONS  15  AND  16. — Care  of  the  skin. — Think  of  all  the  reasons  why 
bathing  is  necessary.  (Dust  settles  upon  the  body.  As  the  perspiration  evap- 
orates particles  of  waste  are  left  on  the  skin.)  (Wle  sometimes  hear  the  skin  called 
the  third  lung  because  some  oxygen  enters  our  bodies  thru  the  pores  and  some 
waste  is  given  off.)  Can  the  skin  do  its  work  if  not  kept  clean?  Another  reason 
for  bathing  is  that  it  improves  our  appearance.  Clean  fresh  looking  faces,  and 
clean,  smooth  hands  are  more  attractive  than  dirty,  rough  ones.  Discuss  the  best 
time  to  bathe.  (In  the  evening  just  before  going  to  bed  is  a  good  time  to  take  a 
hot  bath.  You  should  take  a  bath  of  this  sort  once  or  twice  every  week.  Can  you 
see  any  reason  why  you  should  bathe  oftener  in  summer  than  in  winter?  Some 
people  find  that  a  cold  bath  if  taken  in  the  morning  is  invigorating.  After  tak- 
ing a  cold  bath  one  should  rub  vigorously  with  a  towel  until  one  feels  all  aglow. 
If  it  is  not  possible  to  take  a  cold  bath  in  the  morning,  form  the  habit  of  sprink- 
ling the  throat  and  chest  with  cold  water  and  rubbing  them  vigorously.  You  will 
find  this  a  great  help  to  prevent  your  taking  cold. 

Are  there  any  diseases  that  enter  the  body  through  the  skin?  Eeview  the  mos- 
quito study  in  the  fall  of  the  fifth  year.  There  are  certain  diseases  of  the  skin  as 
well  as  of  the  eyes  that  are  contagious  because  by  disease  germs.  We  should  avoid 
wiping  upon  public  towels.  Some  people  will  realize  how  worth  while  it  is  for 
every  person  to  have  his  own  towel. 

Study  from  the  physiology  the  structure  of  the  hair  and  nails  as  modified  por- 
tions of  the  skin.  Study  how  to  care  for  the  nails  and  hair.  This  is  a  good  time, 
also  to  talk  about  the  uses  of  clothing.  If  the  body  generates  its  own  heat,  then 
what  is  the  purpose  of  clothing?  It  is  to  keep  the  heat  of  the  body  from  passing 
out  into  the  air.  Some  kinds  of  cloth  keep  the  heat  in  better  than  other  kinds  so 
we  wear  different  materials  in  winter  from  those  that  we  wear  in  summer.  Warm 
clothing  should  be  worn  in  winter  but  it  should  not  be  too  heavy.  Overcoats  and 
wraps  should  not  be  kept  on  in  the  house  because  we  shall  get  too  warm  and  are 
likely  to  be  chilled  when  we  go  out  of  doors.  Wet  clothing  should  not  be  kept 
on  and  allowed  to  dry  on  the  body.  Can  you  tell  why  it  will  chill  the  body?  Think 
about  the  experiments  in  Lesson  12.  The  water  in  evaporating  from  the  clothing 
uses  up  the  heat  of  the  body.  The  same  rule  should  be  observed  with  regard  to 
wet  feet. 

LESSON  17. — If  time  permits  make  a  brief  study  in  two  lessons  of  the  brain 
and  nervous  system.  The  chief  thing  for  the  children  to  keep  in  mind  is  that  the 
brain  and  nerves  control  all  the  acts  of  the  body.  They  are  the  rulers  of  the  body. 
We  must  care,  then,  for  the  nervous  system  by  taking  proper  rest  and  sleep  and 
by  avoiding  the  use  of  any  stimulants  that  act  upon  the  nerves.  It  is  the  nervous 
system  often  more  than  any  other  part  of  the  body  that  ia  affected  by  alcohol  and 
other  stimulants. 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOE  MAECH. — Forestry.  Identify  as  many  trees  in  the  neigh- 
borhood as  possible.  Collect  twigs,  study  character  of  buds,  baric,  leaf  scar,  etc. 
Trees  of  Illinois.  If  possible  visit  a  grove  of  native1  trees.  Row  does  the  soil  and 
surface  differ  from  a  prairie  region?  Are  the  trees  of  the  district  native  or  trans- 
planted? Who  planted  them?  Destruction  of  forests;  methods  of  conservation; 
government  reserves;  special  study  of  catalpa;  branding  buds,  pods,  seeds,  value 
for  posts.  Plant  seeds  at  home  and  school. 

Make  plans  for  Arbor  Day;  how  trees  should  be  planted  and  cared  for. 

Garden.  Potato.  Study  of  tubers,  bud,  stem,  and  starch.  Methods  of  cutting, 
planting.  Experiments  in  planting  large  and  small  piece  buds  and  stem  ends. 
Treatment  for  scab.  Encourage  each  child  to  plant  some  potatoes  for  display  next 
fall. 

NOTE. — There  is  perhaps  no  better  place  than  the  sixth  grade  to  intensify 
tree  study.  Up  to  this  time  the  children  have  been  observing  trees  and  becoming 
acquainted  with  their  characteristics  and  uses.  Now  is  a  good  time  to  organize 
this  knowledge  more  fully  and  to  broaden  the  work  until  it  includes  something  of 
elementary  forestry.  If  the  children,  however,  have  had  little  opportunity  to 


89 

study  individual  trees  of  the  district  it  may  be  worth  while  giving  the  time  to  the 
study  as  suggested  for  the  fourth  year. 

LESSON  1.  TREES  AND  FORESTRY.— Have  the  children  make  a  list  of 
all  the  trees  they  know  when  the  leaves  are  on ;  when  the  leaves  are  off.  What 
trees  have  already  begun  to  open  their  flower  buds?  (Elm  and  soft  maples  blos- 
som in  March.)  Start  a  simple  tree  calendar.  9 


Xame 

Time  of 
flowering 

Leaves  begin 
to  open 

Leaves  full 
grown 

Fruit  and 
seed  ripe 

Soft  Maple 

March  15 

April  20 

May  8 

May  20 

LESSON  2. — Bring  into  class  for  this  study  twigs  of  trees;  cottonwood,  elm, 
oak,  etc.  Look  at  the  twig  and  name  all  the  things  that  you  see.  You  should  find 
buds,  leaf  scars  showing  where  the  old  leaves  were  fastened  last  year,  and  ring 
scars  that  mark  the  place  where  the  new  twigs  begin  to  grow  each  year.  These 
scars  will  enable  you  to  identify  each  year's  growth.  How  many  years'  growth 
does  your  twig  represent?  You  should  find  also  on  the  bark  small  spots  or  pores 
called  lenticels.  How  are  the  buds  related  to  the  leaf  scars.  Are  they  above  or 
below  the  scars?  Are  the  buds  opposite  or  alternate  in  arrangement?  Are  there 
any  buds  at  the  end  of  the  twigs?  Are  the  end  or  terminal  buds  the  same  size 
and  shape  as  the  side  or  lateral  buds?  Draw  a  twig  showing  everything  you  see 
and  label  neatly. 

LESSON  3. — Make  a  comparative  study  of  the  twigs  of  two  or  three  other 
trees  in  the  district.  Note  size,  shape,  color,  and  arrangement  of  buds,  etc.  Do 
you  find  more  trees  with  opposite  or  with  alternate  buds?  Compare  different  trees 
as  to  the  growth  that  they  make  in  one  season.  Measure  the  length  of  one  year 
old  twigs  and  note  the  difference  of  growth  rate  between  "hard"  and  "soft" 
woods.  Study  also  the  characteristics  of  the  entire  tree.  This  may  be  done  out- 
side of  school  hours  and  reported.  Note  the  method  of  branching  of  each  tree. 
Color  of  bark.  Is  the  bark  smooth  or  rough?  Furrowed  or  scaly?  Do  the  scales 
form  any  distinct  patterns?  Does  the  surface  and  color  of  the  trunk  differ  from 
that  of  the  branches  and  twigs?  Are  last  year's  seeds  still  clinging  to  any  of 
the  trees  ?  If  so,  collect  and  preserve  these. 

LESSONS  4  AND  5. — Study  of  the  wood.  Get  some  one  in  the  neighborhood 
at  the  time  the  trees  are  being  pruned  to  make  a  few  cross  sections  of  the  large 
branches  of  as  many  trees  as  possible.  If  someone  cuts  down  a  tree  try  to  get  a  cross 
section  of  the  trunk.  Start  the  children  in  making  a  collection  of  specimens  of 
wood  of  the  different  trees.  Each  section  should  be  made  straight  across  and 
should  be  two  or  three  inches  thick.  Very  small  cross  sections  will  serve  for  this 
lesson  if  large  ones  cannot  be  obtained.  A  few  longitudinal  sections  may  be  of 
service.  These  may  be  made  by  splitting  some  of  the  cross  sections  through  the 
middle. 

Look  at  the  cross  section  of  wood.  How  many  distinct  structures  can  you 
see?  If  it  is  a  large  section  you  will  find  hard  wood  at  the  center  known  as  "the 
heart  wood,  softer  wood  outside  of  this  which  is  called  sap  wood,  and  on  the  out- 
side of  this  is  the  bark.  Do  these  different  parts  show  any  difference  in  color? 
Do  the  colors  differ  in  different  kinds  of  trees?  Can  you  see  any  rays  extending 
outward  from  the  center  of  the  section?  These  are  called  pith  rays.  How  many 
rings  are  there  in  your  specimen?  What  do  the  rings  indicate?  Each  ring  usually 
indicates  a  year 's  growth.  Make  drawings  of  cross  sections  showing  all  of  the 
parts. 

LESSON  6. — Secure  a  few  fresh  twigs  from  a  willow,  maple,  or  cottonwood. 
How  does  the  bark  on  the  young  stem  differ  from  that  on  the  trunk  or  older 
branches?  Why  do  you  suppose  the  outside  became  so  rough  on  the  older  stem? 
Look  at  the  branches  of  various  ages  to  see  if  you  can  solve  this  problem  for 
yourself.  (The  inside  layers  of  bark  and  wood  grow  so  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  outside  layer  that  it  is  compelled  to  stretch.  After  a  time  it  can  stretch  no 
further  and  so  cracks  and  splits  open  forming  furrows  or  scales.) 


90 

Peel  a  piece  of  bark  from  the  twig.  What  is  the  color  of  the  bark  on  the  in- 
side? See  if  you  can  find  three  layers  in  the  bark.  The  thin  skin  on  the  outside 
is  called  epidermis.  Just  under  this  is  a  green  layer  and  on  the  inside  is  the  white 
layer  called  bast. 

How  does  the  wood  look  under  the  bast?  Is  it  dry  or  wet?  Bub  your  finger 
over  it.  How  does  it  feel?  This  sticky,  sappy  layer  between  the  wood  and  the 
bark  is  called  the  cambium.  It  is  very  important,  for  this  is  where  the  new  cells 
of  wood  and  bark  are  formed,  making  a  new  growth  of  wood  and  bark. 

Cut  a  cross  section  of  this  young  stem.  Does  it  resemble  the  section  of  the 
old  stem?  The  soft  part  you  find  in  the  center  is  pith.  Can  you  see  any  rays  go- 
ing out  from  this?  After  a  stem  is  a  few  years  old  the  pith  disappears. 

LESSON  7. — Work  and  growth  of  trees.  If  trees  grow  they  must  have  food. 
If  you  bore  a  small  hole  in  a  maple  tree  in  the  early  spring,  or  break  the  end 
from  a  branch,  what  runs  out?  Did  you  ever  taste  this  sap?  Why  does  it  taste 
sweet?  It  has  sugar  in  it.  How  is  maple  syrup  made?  Perhaps  some  of  the 
children  have  visited  a  sugar  camp  and  can  tell  how  the  trees  are  tapped,  how  the 
sap  is  collected  and  then  boiled  down  into  syrup  or  sugar. 

Where  do  the  trees  get  this  sap?  It  was  stored  in  the  roots  during  the  long 
winter,  but  the  leaves  manufactured  it  the  summer  before,  so  one  may  think  of  the 
leaves  of  the  trees  as  factories  that  make  the  food  for  the  whole  tree.  The  roots 
take  from  the  soil  water  and  some  minerals  in  solution.  The  water  travels  up- 
ward through  the  stem  to  the  leaves.  The  leaves  take  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxide 
from  the  air  and  all  day  long  they  are  using  water  and  this  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
manufacture  of  food  for  the  tree.  Some  of  the  food  is  used  at  once  in  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  the  leaves,  and  flowers,  but  a  great  deal  of  it  is  stored  up  in  the  stem 
and  the  root  and  used  when  the  tree  begins  its  growth  in  the  spring.  Has  a  tree 
enough  food  stored  up  in  its  stem  to  start  the  young  leaves  growing  in  the  spring- 
time? You  may  test  this  by  breaking  off  a  few  twigs,  putting  them  into  water, 
and  keeping  them  in  the  light.  Watch  the  opening  of  the  buds  and  see  how  large 
the  leaves  succeed  in  growing  in  the  school  room. 

LESSON  8. — A  simple  experiment  may  be  tried  to  show  in  what  part  of  a 
stem  water  travels  upward.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  red  ink  into  a  tumbler  half 
full  of  water.  Get  some  fresh  twigs  of  maples  or  willow7  or  some  other  tree  and 
place  them  in  the  cold  water.  Let  them  stand  until  the  next  day.  Now  make 
some  cross  sections  with  a  sharp  knife  and  notice  in  what  part  of  the  twig  the 
ink  traveled  upward.  You  will  find  that  it  is  in  the  wood.  In  the  tree  trunk  only 
the  newest  layers  of  sap  wood  carry  the  water  upward..  You  will  be  interested  to 
know  that  the  bast,  the  inner  layer  of  bark,  carries  the  food  downward  from  the 
leaves  to  the  stems  and  the  roots. 

LESSON  9. — If  you  live  in  a  wooded  region  have  the  children  identify  as 
many  of  the  trees  as  possible.  You  may  have  to  wait  until  the  leaves  are  out 
before  you  can  be  sure  of  all  the  trees.  You  should  find  in  our  native  Illinois 
groves  oaks  of  several  kinds;  white,  red,  black  and  burr  oak  are  most  common. 
You  are  not  likely  to  find  all  of  these  in  the  same  grove.  Some  other  common 
Illinois  trees  are  the  buckeye,  walnuts,  sugar  maple,  sycamore,  ash,  iron-wood, 
elms,  hickory,  mulberry.  Which  of  the  trees  have  the  largest  trunks?  Which  are 
tallest?  Are  there  any  young  trees  growing  up  among  the  old  ones?  What  kind 
is  most  numerous?  Are  there  many  decaying  logs  on  the  ground?  Have  many 
dead  branches  dropped  from  the  trees?  Is  there  much  underbrush?  What  use 
if  any,  is  made  of  woods  where  you  live?  Do  stock  run  in  them?  Do  cattle 
and  sheep  injure  the  young  trees?  Are  any  of  the  trees  cut  down  each  year? 
What  are  they  used  for? 

If  you  live  in  a  prairie  region  have  the  children  tell  how  far  they  would  have 
to  go  to  get  to  the  woods.  There  are  not  many  sections  in  Illinois  that  are  more 
than  ten  miles  from  a  wooded  region.  Most  districts  are  nearer.  Have  the  chil- 
dren ever  gone  to  the  woods?  Do  they  know  any  of  the  native  trees?  They  should 
know  at  least  what  some  of  our  common  trees  are.  A  collection  of  twigs,  leaves, 
and  fruit  is  of  value  for  tree  study. 

Where  do  we  find  trees  in  the  prairie  region?  Try  to  have  the  children  pic- 
ture a  time  when  there  were  no  trees  here.  Nothing  but  the  tall,  prairie  grass 
and  prairie  flowers.  How  have  the  trees  come  into  this  region?  Find  out,  if  you 
can,  something  of  the  history  of  the  trees  in  the  district.  Who  set  them  out? 


91 

Which  are  the  oldest  trees?  Has  any  one  set  out  trees  in  recent  rears?  Do  you 
find  any  trees  in  the  prairie  region  that  were  not  set  out  by  man?  Sometimes  you 
will  find  along  the  streams  a  number  of  willows  and  occasionally  in  a  field  a  big 
cottonwood  that  has  been  there  for  years.  Can  you  think  how  these  trees  were 
planted?  What  kind  of  seeds  have  the  willow  and  cottonwood?  They  have  tiny 
seeds  attached  to  bits  of  cotton  that  may  blow  miles  and  miles  on  a  windy  day. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  these  trees  plant  themselves. 

LESSOX  10. — Discuss  the  value  of  trees.  Make  a  list  of  the  industries  that 
depend  upon  forests.  (Lumbering,  furniture  making,  ship  building,  the  making 
of  cars,  wood  pulp,  paper  making,  turpentine,  tar,  etc.)  Where  are  the  forests  that 
supply  these  great  demands?  Where  are  most  of  the  trees  that  are  used  for  lum- 
bering? What  kind  of  trees  are  used  largely  for  lumber?  Are  they  conifers  or 
broad  leaved  trees?  Are  there  as  many  trees* from  which  to  make  lumber  as  there 
were  years  ago?  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  are  helping  to  destroy  our  for- 
Have  you  heard  of  forest  fires?  How  do  they  get  started?  Sometimes  they 
are  started  by  a  spark  from  engines,  but  more  often  by  carelessness  on  the  part 
of  campers  or  other  people.  Hundreds  of  acres  of  excellent  timber  are  burned 
every  year.  Do  you  know  what  our  government  is  doing  to  prevent  the  destruc- 
tion of  our  forests?  Make  plans  for  an  Arbor  Day  program,  using  some  of  the 
compositions  written  by  the  children  in  these  studies. 

LESSOX  11.  THE  POTATO. — For  the  purpose  of  arousing  interest,  the  les- 
sons on  the  potato  may  begin  with  an  informal  discussion  of  the  importance  of 
the  potato  crop  in  the  district.  Do  all  families  in  the  neighborhood  raise  pota- 
toes? Do  they  raise  them  as -a  garden  or  as  a  field  crop?  Are  there  more  than 
enough  produced  to  supply  the  home  demands  ?  If  some  are  marketed  are  they 
sold,  in  the  fall  or  stored  until  spring?  How  are  they  stored  for  the  winter? 
Illinois  ranks  seventh  among  the  potato  growing  states  of  the  Union.  In  1906 
the  value  of  the  potato  crop  in  this  state  was  a  little  over  nine  millions  of  dollars. 

Ask  each  pupil  to  bring  a  potato  to  school,  if  possible,  the  kind  that  is  to 
be  planted  at  home  in  the  spring. 

If  the  teacher  can  procure  types  of  two  or  three  varieties  of  potatoes  she  will 
find  them  of  value  in  presenting  this  work. 

LESSOX  12. — With  the  potatoes  before  the  children  raise  the  question  what 
is  this  that  we  call  a  "seed  potato?"  Is  it  really  a  seed?  (Draw  upon  the  ex- 
perience and  observation  of  the  children  as  to  what  a  seed  is.  Xame  some  seeds  that 
we  use  for  the  purpose  of  starting  new  plants,  such  as  peas,  beans  and  radishes.) 
Where  did  these  grow  upon  the  plants,  and  what  preceded  them  in  every  case?  It 
will  not  be  difficult  to  have  the  children  see  that  whenever,  true  seeds  are  produced 
they  are  always  preceded  by  flowers.  They  will  readily  see,  also,  that  the  potato 
is  not  a  seed.  What,  then,  is  it  ? 

Examine  the  potato.  What  do  you  find  scattered  over  the  surface?  Do  any 
of  the  eyes  show  signs  of  growth?  What  is  growing  from  them?  The  eyes  are 
buds.  Where  are  the  buds  most  numerous?  Are  they  all  the  same  size?  (The 
end  of  the  potato  on  which  the  buds  are  so  numerous  is  called  the  seed  or  bud 
end  of  the  potato.)  Look  at  the  opposite  end.  What  do  you  find?  If  you  do  not 
find  a  small  stem  you  will  see  the  scar  where  the  stem  has  been  fastened.  This  end 
of  the  potato  is  known  as  the  stem  end. 

Xow  hold  the  potato  in  your  hand  and  think  what  it  would  resemble  if  you 
could  stretch  it  out  many  times  its  length  and  having  its  width  reduced  accord- 
ingly. It  would  look  like  a  stem  with  buds  on  it.  That  is  just  what  it  is,  a 
thick,  fleshy  stem,  and  since  it  grows  in  the  ground  we  call  it  an  underground  stem. 
This  particular  form  of  underground  stem  is  called  a  tuber.  So  you  see  we  use 
tubers  instead  of  seeds  to  propagate  new  potato  plants. 

LESSOX  13. — Cut  the  potato  in  two  through  one  of  the  eyes.  How  does  the 
cut  surface  feel  when  you  rub  your  finger  over  it  ?  How  many  different  structures 
do  you  see  in  this  surface?  (You  will  find  the  peeling  which  corresponds  to  the 
outside  layer  of  bark  on  a  tree  stem,  a  dark  line  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from 
the  outside,  and  the  mass  of  white  material  in  the  center.  The  dark  line  corres- 
ponds to  the  woody  layer  of  a  tree  stem  and  the  white  mass  to  the  pith.  Does 
the  woody  line  extend  up  into  the  bud  ? 


92 

LESSON  14. — Scrape  the  white  portion  from  two  or  three  potatoes.  Put  the 
scrapings  into  a  cup  or  glass  full  of  water.  Stir  thoroughly.  Allow  this  to  stand 
twenty-four  hours  then  pour  off  the  liquid  and  bits  of  potato.  What  is  left  in 
the  bottom?  If  you  pour  hot  water  on  this  starch  it  will  thicken  just  as  laundry 
starch  does. 

There  is  another  way  to  prove  that  this  is  starch.  Dilute  a  little  of  the 
tincture  of  iodine  with  about  twice  the  amount  of  water.  Place  a  few  drops  of 
this  upon  the  starch.  What  change  of  color  takes  place?  (Iodine  acts  chem- 
ically upon  the  starch  changing  the  color  to  blue.  The  more  starch  there  is  in  any 
substance  the  darker  blue  it  becomes.) 

What  is  the  use  of  the  starch  in  the  potato?  (This  may  be  left  as  a  problem 
to  solve  later  in  the  year.) 

Fill  a  box  or  tin  pail  two -thirds  full  of  sand  and  plant  two  tubers  in  it. 
Fill  another  box  with  soil  and  plant  two  tubers.  Keep  both  well  watered.  When 
the  plants  are  about  four  inches  high  dig  up  one  from  each  box  and  note  whether 
or  not  the  tuber  shows  .that  some  of  the  starch  has  been  used.  Is  there  any  dif- 
ference between  the  one  grown  in  sand  and  the  one  in  soil?  Leave  the  other  two 
plants  until  the  last  week  of  the  spring  term  then  examine  to  see  if  they  have 
used  up  any  more  of  the  stored  food.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  be- 
tween the  one  grown  in  sand  and  the  one  in  soil? 

This  will  be  a  good  time  to  observe  just  how  the  shoot  grows  from  the  bud, 
and  where  the  roots  are  produced.  If  the  plants  have  made  a  vigorous  growth  you 
may  be  able  at  this  time  to  find  the  small  underground  stems  with  the  tiny  tubers 
beginning  to  develop  at  the  outer  ends. 

LESSON  15.  CUTTING  THE  POTATOES.— Are  whole  or  only  portions  of 
the  tubers  used  for  seed?  Discuss  the  various  methods  used  at  home.  Tell  the 
children  that  many  experiments  have  been  made  by  experts  to  try  to  determine 
the  best  way  to  cut  tubers.  Most  of  the  experiments  show  that  a  chunky,  compact 
piece  with  at  least  two  eyes  usually  gives  the  best  results.  Some  very  interesting 
experiments  may  .be  worked  out  by  the  children  in  this  connection. 

LESSONS  16  AND  17. — PLANTING. — Discusss  with  the  children  the  time 
potatoes  are  planted  at  their  homes.  The  time  of  planting  must  necessarily  vary 
with  locality.  A  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  plant  the  early  crop  as  soon  as  the 
soil  may  be  worked  in  the  spring.  Many  plant  the  main  crop  very  early  also.  Po- 
tatoes require  a  vast  amount  of  moisture  so  they  should  be  planted  in  time  to 
catch  some  of  the  spring  rains. 

The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  important.  How  many  of  the  children 
know  whether  or  not  the  potato  plots  are  plowed  in  the  fall,  or  spring  on  their 
home  grounds?  Can  you  think  of  any  good  reason  for  fall  plowing?  Does  any  one 
in  the  neighborhood  sow  rye  in  the  potato  plot  in  the  fall  and  plow  it  under 
in  the  spring?  What  is  the  value  of  this?  (It  does  two  things  that  are  good  for 
the  potatoes.  The  decaying  rye  helps  to  enrich  the  soil,  and  at  the  same  time 
it  helps  to  make  the  soil  loose  and  mellow.)  Can  you  think  why  these  are  desirable 
characteristics  of  soil  in  which  potatoes  are  to  be  grown?  (As  the  tubers  grow 
they  must  push  the  soil  out  of  their  way;  you  can  easily  see  how  hard,  compact 
soil  may  dwarf  their  growth.)  Who  in  the  neighborhood  use  fertilizers  on  the 
soil?  It  is  not  a  good  thing  to  put  barn  manure  on  the  ground  just  before  plant- 
ing. It  is  likely  to  increase  the  growth  of  the  potato  scab.  You  will  see  why 
when  you  take  up  the  study  of  fungi.  The  manure  should  be  applied  and  plowed 
under  in  the  fall.  Some  potato  growers  think  a  better  plan  is  to  put  the  manure 
on  one  year,  grow  corn  or  some  other  crop,  and  follow  with  the  potato  crop 
the  second  year. 

It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  plant  potatoes  on  the  same  ground  year  after  year. 
We  shall  not  try  to  explain  here  the  reasons  why.  We  shall  do  that  when  we 
study  how  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  enough  to  know  that  a  rota- 
tion should  be  practiced  in  growing  potatoes  as  well  as  other  crops. 

How  far  apart  shall  we  plant  the  potatoes?  Here  is  another  opportunity  to 
draw  upon  the  home  experience  of  the  children.  Why  may  potatoes  in  the  garden 
that  are  to  be  tended  by  hand  be  planted  closer  together  than  those  in  the  fields 
that  are  to  be  cultivated  with  horse  cultivators? 

In  the  garden  the  rows  may  be  as  close  as  two  and  one-half  feet;  in  the  field 
they  should  be  three  feet  apart.  The  pieces  should  be  placed  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  apart.  One  compact  piece  in  a  place  is  better  than  two  small  ones. 


93 

How  deep  shall  we  plant  the  potatoes?  There  are  some  good  reasons  why  we 
should  not  plant  too  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  We  shall  see  why  when  we 
check  up  some  of  our  home  and  vacation  experiments.  In  compact,  heavy  soil  it 
may  be  necessary  to  plant  not  more  than  three  inches  deep.  However,  in  mellow, 
loose  soil  the  pieces  should  be  four  or  five  inches  below  the  level  surface  of  the 
plot. 

Discuss  the  method  of  planting  potatoes  practiced  in  the  neighborhood.  How 
are  the  furrows  made?  How  are  the  pieces  dropped?  How  covered?  In  some 
states  where  potatoes  constitute  the  chief  crop,  planters  are  used  which  open  the 
furrows,  drop  the  tubers,  and  cover  them  at  the  same  time. 

LESSON  18.  METHODS  OF  CULTIVATION. — What  machinery  is  used  in 
cultivating  the  crop?  Let  the  children  report  on  this  and  on  the  number  of  times 
the  crop  is  cultivated.  The  harrow  is  an  important  implement  in  cultivating  po- 
tatoes. The  soil  should  be  harrowed  once  or  twice  before  the  plants  appear  above 
the  ground.  After  the  plants  are  up  a  hand  hoe  or  corn  cultivator  should  be  used, 
the  oftener  the  better.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cultivate  too  deeply,  just  a 
few  inches  of  the  upper  soil  should  be  stirred.  Can  you  see  why?  (There  is  dan- 
ger of  injuring  the  roots  and  the  small  underground  stems.)  Which  is  better, 
to  keep  the  potato  plot  as  level  as  possible  or  ridge  up  the  rows? 

Plan  for  a  potato  contest  this  year.  Each  pupil  should  plant  a  small  plot 
of  at  least  forty  hills,  sixty  or  eighty  would  be  better,  or  an  eighth  or  a  fourth 
of  an  acre.  The  plots  should  not  be  so  large  that  the  amount  of  work  required  to 
keep  them  in  good  condition  will  be  discouraging.  A  number  of  interesting  ex- 
periments may  be  tried.  Some  of  these  experiments  may  possibly  be  worked  out 
on  the  family  plots  where  the  labor  may  be  shared  with  the  father  and  his  help. 
For  the  sixth  grade,  experiments  one,  two,  and  four  are  excellent.  If  prizes  are 
to  be  awarded  they  may  be  of  three  kinds.  First,  for  the  best  yield  per  acre.  Sec- 
ond, for  the  smoothest,  largest  potatoes.  Third,  for  the  best  results  from  the  ex- 
periments attempted. 

The  pupils  should  keep  a  simple  careful  record  of  their  work  and  observations. 
This  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  when  the  work  is  reported  in  the  fall. 

The  record  should  include:  exact  amount  of  potatoes  planted;  date  of  plant- 
ing; how  long  after  planting  before  plants  appear  above  the  ground;  date  when 
potatoes  are  large  enough  to  use;  number  of  days  from  time  of  planting  until 
potatoes  are  fully  mature,  the  vines  dead  or  dying;  method  of  cultivation;  special 
treatment  of  special  experiments;  date  of  flowering.  A  brief  study  of  the  flower 
may  be  made.  Note  the  color  and  position  on  the  stem.  Do  different  varieties 
differ  in  color  of  flowers?  Examine  one  flower.  Do  you  know  of  the  flowers  that 
are  similar  in  shape  and  structure?  Compare  with  tomato  and  common  night- 
shade. (The  potato  and  tomato  both  belong  to  the  night-shade  family.) 

What  insects  or  other  foes  have  bothered  your  plants?  What  methods  have 
you  employed  to  combat  them? 

SUGGESTED  EXPERIMENTS:  1.  Does  the  size  of  the  piece  of  potato 
planted  have  any  effect  upon  the  yield?  Plant  one  row  each  of  whole  tubers, 
halves,  quarters,  and  very  small  pieces  with  but  one  eye.  Give  all  exactly  the  same 
cultivation.  2.  Will  plants  grown  from  small  potatoes  yield  as  well  as  those 
grown  from  larger  ones?  Plant  two  rows  of  very  small  tubers  and  two  using  large 
tubers  of  the  same  variety.  3.  Which  will  give  better  results  shallow  or  deep 
planting?  Plant  one  row  two  or  three  inches  deep,  another  five  or  six  inches. 
4.  Which  will  yield  the  best  the  bud  or  stem  end  of  the  potato?  Cut  the  potatoes 
in  two  through  the  middle.  Plant  the  bud  ends  in  one  row,  the  stem  ends  in 
another. 

5.  How  may  potato  scab  be  prevented?  Treat  enough  tubers  with  formalin 
solution  to  plant  two  or  three  rows.  Formalin  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store. 
Put  a  tablespoonful  into  a  gallon  of  water.  Place  the  potatoes  in  the  solution  and 
allow  them  to  remain  two  hours.  Remove,  let  them  stand  till  they  are  dry,  then 
cut  and  plant.  Scab  is  a  fungous  disease  that  makes  potatoes  rough  and  dwarfs 
their  growth.  The  fungous  starts  from  tiny  cells  or  spores  that  stay  on  the  seed 
potatoes.  Formalin  kills  the  spores.  When  potatoes  are  raised  on  the  same  ground 
year  after  year  the  spores  sometimes  live  over  winter  in  the  soil  and  are  all  ready 
to  attack  the  young  potatoes  when  they  begin  to  grow.  If  there  were  no  other, 
this  is  a  good  reason  for  practicing  rotation  of  crops.  (Suggested  reading,  Mann's 
Beginnings  in  Agriculture,  pp.  171-176.) 


94 
APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOE  APKIL  AND  MAY.— Fruit  Trees,  identify  the  apple,  cherry, 
peach,  plum,  pear.  Study  one  as  a  type.  Compare  as  to  size,  bark,  shape,  leaves, 
flowers.  Special  study  of  a  flower.  Note  parts  with  function.  Orchard  methods, 
pruning,  spraying,  etc.  Note  effects  of  late  frosts  upon  flowers. 

Garden.  Make  plans  for  planting  home  gardens  and,  if  practicable,  a  school 
garden.  Plant  some  biennials,  as  parsnips,  salsify,  beets;  some  annuals,  as  beans, 
peas,  and  melons.  Some  flowering  plants;  select  from  seed  catalogues. 

Birds  as  tree  protectors.  Special  study  of  warblers  during  migration  in  early 
May;  migration  studies;  classify  birds  on  basis  of  sojourn  here — permanent  resi- 
dents, summer  residents,  winter  residents,  migrants;  service  rendered  by  insecti- 
vorous migrants. 

NOTE. — In  preparation  for  the  garden  work  later  in  the  month  plant  in 
shallow  pans  or  boxes  some  squash,  pumpkin,  cucumber,  and  melon  seed. 

LESSON  1.  FKUIT-TKEE  STUDIES.— Make  a  list  of  the  fruit  trees  in  the 
district.  Choose  one  for  special  study.  If  the  cherry  is  abundant  this  is  a  good 
one  to  study  as  a  type.  Tell  the  children  to  look  at  their  cherry  trees  at  home  and 
note  the  following:  How  tall  are  the  trees?  What  is  the  color  of  the  bark,  of  the 
trunk,  or  the  twigs?  Is  the  bark  smooth  or  rough?  On  what  part  of  the  trees  is  it 
most  shiny?  If  you  try  to  peel  off  a  little  of  the  bark  which  way  does  it  peel,  up 
or  down  or  around  the  tree?  How  thick  is  the  trunk  of  the  tree?  How  old  is  the 
tree  that  you  are  studying?  How  does  it  branch?  Do  the  limbs  separate  into  two 
or  three  branches  or  does  the  main  trunk  extend  to  the  top  of  the  tree? 

LESSON  2. — For  this  lesson  have  some  twigs  in  class  with  the  flowers  on. 
See  if  you  can  find  on  these  twigs  all  of  the  things  that  you  found  on  the  twigs 
of  the  shade  tree  studied  in  March.  (See  Lesson  2,  March.) 

LESSON  3. — Where  are  the  flowers  situated  on  the  cherry  twigs?  Are  they 
single  or  in  clusters?  Are  there  any  leaves  upon  any  of  the  twigs?  Are  there 
separate  buds  for  the  flowers  and  leaves?  Do  you  find  both  flowers  and  leaves  in 
all  of  the  buds?  Look  carefully  at  one  flower.  What  do  you  find  at  the  top  of 
the  slender  flower  stem?  This  green  cup  with  the  leaf -like  bodies  turned  back- 
ward is  the  calyx.  Each  of  the  green  bodies  is  a  sepal.  •  How  many  sepals  are 
there  in  the  calyx?  The  white  part  of  the  flower  is  the  corolla,  and  each  white 
leaf -like  portion  is  a  petal.  How  many  petals  has  the  flower?  What  do  you  find 
inside  the  flower?  The  small  bodies  with  the  little  knobs  on  the  end  are  stamens. 
Are  there  many  or  few  of  these?  To  what  are  they  fastened?  Look  in  the  center 
of  the  flower  for  a  body  different  from  the  stamens.  This  is  the  pistil.  Look  at 
the  very  lowest  part  of  the  pistil  for  a  round  body  called  the  ovary.  The  slender 
stem-like  part  above  this  is  the  style,  and  the  little  disc-like  portion  spread  out  at 
the  top  of  the  style  is  the  stigma. 

LESSON  4.— What  is  the  function  of  the  flower?  It  produces  fruit.  It 
takes  both  the  stamens  and  the  pistil  to  produce  fruit.  In  the  little  knobs  on  the 
stamen  you  will  find  a  powder ;  it  is  pollen.  The  pollen  must  be  placed  upon  the  stigma 
of  the  pistil  if  any  cherrjes  are  produced.  What  part  of  the  flower  will  grow 
into  the  cherry?  Leave  this  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  later  by  observation.  Watch 
closely  to  see  what  parts  of  the  flower  wither  and  fall  off,  and  what  parts  remain. 

LESSONS  5  AND  6. — Make  a.  comparative  study  of  the  flowers  of  other  fruit 
trees,  especially  the  apple,  plum,  and  pear.  Note  the  points  of  resemblances  and 
differences.  Compare  the  flowers  as  to  color,  number  of  stamens,  and  number  of 
pistils.  Compare  the  trees  noting  which  have  the  smoothest  bark,  which  grow 
tallest,  which  spread  out  most.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  which  of  the  trees  on  your 
home  grounds  are  oldest,  and  which  of  them  blossom  first  in  the  spring.  Are 
all  of  the  stamens  attached  to  the  calyx?  The  flowers  are  enough  alike  to  cause 
botanists  to  place  all  of  these  trees  into  one  great  family;  the  rose  family.  If 
you  have  any  wild  roses  in  the  neighborhood  procure  one  of  the  flowers  and  com- 
pare it  with  these  tree  blossoms. 

LESSON  7.— Note  carefully  any  effect  of  late  frosts  on  the  fruit.  What  part 
is  blighted?  To  determine  this  examine  the  pistil.  If  it  is  green  and  fresh  then 
the  fruit  is  all  right,  but  if  it  is  blackened  the  fruit  is  killed.  Watch  to  see  if  any 


95 

of  the  blossoms  fall  off  even  though  they  are  not  injured  by  frost.  Is  it  a  good 
thing  to  have  some  of  the  flowers  fail  to  produce  fruit?  Think  what  would  happen 
if  every  single  flower  on  your  apple  or  cherry  tree  should  produce  an  apple  or  a 
cherry.  The  trees  would  not  be  able  to  bear  up  the  weight  of  the  fruit. 

LESSON  8.  CARE  OF  FRUIT  TREES.— Let  the  children  discuss  different 
ways  in  which  their  fruit  trees  are  cared  for.  Have  them  observe  how  far  apart 
the  trees  are  planted  in  the  orchard.  Which  are  planted  closer  together,  apple  or 
peach  trees?  Is  the  soil  cultivated  in  order  to  raise  other  crops  between  the  rows 
of  trees?  Many  fruit  growers  believe  in  cultivating  the  soil,  especially  when  the 
trees  are  young.  Sometimes  other  crops,  vegetables  and  even  farm  crops,  are 
raised  between  the  rows.  Apple  and  pears  are  longest  lived  of  our  fruit  trees. 
Peaches  are  the  shortest  lived. 

LESSON  9.  PRUNING. — Discuss  the  care  of  trees  with  reference  to 
pruning.  When  are  the  trees  pruned?  Who  does  the  work?  Why  is  it  necessary? 
Young  trees,  especially  apple,  should  be  pruned  to  compel  the  tree  to  form  a  well- 
shaped  head.  A  fruit  grower  wishes  to  have  the  tree  not  only  well  formed,  but 
with  just  enough  branches  to  permit  free  circulation  of  air  and  the  right  amount 
of  sunlight.  If  the  branches  are  too  close  together  the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  small 
because  it  is  too  much  shaded.  If  the  branches  are  too  sparse  the  extreme  heat 
of  the  sun  may  injure  the  fruit  and  perhaps  the  tree. 

The  best  time  to  prune  is  late  winter  or  early  spring.  How  should  the  branches 
be  cut?  Look  at  some  of  the  trees  where  branches  have  been  removed  and  report 
what  you  find.  If  the  pruning  has  been  properly  done  you  will  find  that  the  wood 
has  healed  over  and  is  perfectly  smooth  and  hard.  Do  you  find  a  little  stub  sticking 
out  from  the  tree?  Why  is  this  a  poor  method  to  use  in  pruning?  We  must  think 
back  to  your  study  of  the  structure  of  the  forest  trees.  You  remember  that  under 
the  bark  is  the  cambium  layer.  It  is  this  layer  that  helps  heal  the  tree  where  the 
branch  is  removed.  It  succeeds  in  healing  the  wound  more  rapidly  when  the  cut  is 
made  close  to  the  tree.  When  a  stub  is  left  the  wound  is  long  in  healing  and  often 
germs  of  some  tree  disease  will  start  to  grow  before  it  is  entirely  healed.  This  results 
in  the  decay  of  the  branches  and  often  of  the  entire  tree  because  the  decay  works 
back  to  the  main  part  of  the  tree. 

LESSON  10.  SPRAYING. — How  many  in  the  district  spray  their  fruit  trees? 
What  is  the  purpose?  To  destroy  fungous  diseases  and  insects  that  injure  the  fruit 
or  the  trees  themselves.  Fruit  growers  who  expect  to  market  their  fruits  are  careful 
to  use  the  spray.  Farmers,  however,  who  raise  only  a  little  fruit  for  home  consump- 
tion, do  not,  as  a  rule  take  much  care  of  their  trees.  It  pays,  however,  to  use  a 
small  hand  spray  for  the  home  fruit  garden.  The  common  spraying  fluid  used  for 
fungous  diseases  is  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  made  of  from  three  to  four  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate  mixed  with  four  to  six  pounds  of  lime  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
If  one  wishes  to  kill  insects  at  the  same  time  usually  one-half  pound  of  Paris  Green 
is  added. 

Can  you  name  some  insects  that  are  injurious  to  fruit  trees?  Do  you  ever 
find  worms  in  cherries  or  apples?  These  are  the  young  of  the  codlin  moth.  The 
moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the  young  apple  just  after  the  petals  have  fallen  from  the 
flower.  The  egg  hatches  and  the  tiny  worm  eats  its  way  into  the  apple.  If  the  tree 
is  sprayed  at  just  the  right  time,  that  is  just  after  the  petals  have  fallen,  many  of 
these  little  creatures  will  be  killed.  (Suggested  reading  Mann's  Beginnings  in  Agri- 
culture, pp.  177-185.) 

THE  GARDEN.  LESSONS  11  AND  12.— Make  plans  for  home  gardens  and 
if  practicable  arrange  to  plant  flowers  on  the  school  grounds.  Besides  potatoes, 
which  we  discussed  in  the  March  lessons,  plant  a  few  other  vegetables.  This  is  a 
good  time  to  make  a  special  feature  of  the  raising  of  melons,  squashes,  and  cucum- 
bers. Consult  the  catalogues  for  different  varieties.  Try  to  get  each  pupil  to  pro- 
cure at  least  two  kinds  of  cucumber,  squash,  and  melon  seeds. 

Make  a  study  of  the  squash  or  pumpkin  seeds.  Soak  some  in  warm  water  for 
twenty-four  hours.  Remove  the  outside  covering.  Is  it  thick  or  thin?  Is  there  an- 
other covering  left  on  the  seed?  Is  the  kernel  in  one  or  two  parts?  Each  of  these 
parts  is  a  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf.  Find  the  pointed  body  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
cotyledons.  Are  the  cotyledons  fastened  together  at  this  point? 

Remove  from  the  soil  some  of  the  young  plants  that  you  started  a  week  or  two 


96 

before.  Did  the  seed  coats  come  up  as  the  plant  grew?  By  looking  closely  you  will 
see  that  the  root  and  most  of  the  stem  grew  from  the  pointed  body.  What  have  the 
cotyledons  become?  (Those  round  broad  leaves  of  the  plant.)  Are  these  leaves  the 
same  shape  as  the  leaves  of  old  squash  plants?  Do  they  remain  on  the  plant?  Leave 
this  as  a  problem  to  be  solved  later  as  the  plants  continue  to  grow  and  develop. 

LESSON  13. — Compare  with  the  squash  the  little  plants  that  you  have  grown 
from  the  cucumber  and  melon  seeds.  Are  they  similar?  Do  they  look  as  if  they 
might  belong  to  the  same  family?  These  plants  are  all  relatives.  Do  you  know 
anything  about  the  habits  of  growth  of  these  plants?  Eecall  what  you  have  seen  in 
the  gardens.  Are  the  stems  erect  or  prostrate!  Are  the  leaves  large  or  small?  Did 
you  ever  pull  a  leaf  and  note  the  hollow  leaf  stem?  Did  you  ever  look  closely  at  the 
flowers?  When  is  the  fruit  ready  for  use? 

LESSON  14. — What  is  the  best  time  to  plant  cucumbers,  squashes,  and  melons? 
Why  can  we  not  plant  these  early  as  we  do  potatoes  or  peas?  These  plants  were 
formerly  raised  in  warm  climates  so(  they  are  not  able  to  stand  even  a  slight  frost. 
We  most  always  wait  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  past  before  we  plant  any  of  these 
seeds.  In  preparing  the  soil  begin  two  or  three!  weeks  before  planting  time.  Work 
it  up  until  it  is  loose  and  fine.  If  it  has  not  had  some  manure  or  other  fertilizer 
plowed  into  it  in  the  fall  or  early  spring  it  will  be  worth  while  to  fork  into  it  now 
some  well  rotted  manure.  Some  gardeners  make  mounds  or  ridges  a  few  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  garden  in  which  they  plant  the  seeds.  Others,  if  the  drainage  is  good, 
think  it  best  to  plant  seeds  on  a  level  with  the  garden.  It  might  be  interesting  to  try 
both  methods.  The  plants  should  be  from  four  to  six  inches  apart.  They  should  be 
cultivated  carefully  at  first.  After  they  are  well  started  they  usually  cover  the  ground 
sufficiently  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 

LESSON  15. — Spend  one  lesson  discussing  the  value  of  the  melon  family.  How 
many  in  the  neighborhood  raise  squashes  and  cucumbers  for  table  use,  for  the  making 
of  pies,  etc?  Who  raise  cucumbers  for  pickling  and  slicing?  Pumpkins  for  feed- 
ing cattle?  Water  melons  and  musk  melons  for  home  use?  Are  any  of  these  raised 
for  marketing  purposes?  Let  the  children  gain  a  definite  picture  of  what  these  plants 
mean  to  many  people  in  the  making  of  a  living.  Picture  the  great  truck  gardens  near 
the  large  cities  where  melons  are  raised  for  the  market,  where  squashes  or  pumpkins 
are  raised  for  canning,  and  cucumbers  for  the  great  pickle  factories. 

FLOWEEING  PLANTS.  LESSON  16. — Plan  to  raise  flowering  plants.  Spend 
some  time  looking  over  the  seed  catalogues  to  get  acquainted  with  different  flowering 
plants.  Make  definite  plans  for  a  flower  contest  in  the  fall.  Do  not  attempt  to  raise 
too  many.  Three  or  four  different  kinds  are  better  than  a  greater  number.  Discuss 
some  of  the  reasons  why  we  wish  to  learn  how  to  raise  flowers.  Two  reasons  at  least 
should  be  given;  that  we  may  make  the  home  and  its  surroundings  more  attractive, 
and  that  we  may  have  flowers  to  give  to  our  friends.  If  we  are  to!  realize  the  first 
then  we  must  learn  to  make  the  flower  beds  attractive.  We  must  plant  flowers  to- 
gether whose  colors  will  harmonize  and  we  must  know  which  are  shortest  and  which 
tallest  among  the  flowers  which  we  plant.  A  pretty  group  is  the  following: 

California  poppy  for  the  low  flowers.  These  grow  a  little  over  a  foot  high,  and 
have  a  light  yellow  flower.  They  blossom  until  late  in  September  if  the  flowers  are 
kept  gathered.  Gaillardia  grows  about  two  feet  high  and  has  a  rich  orange  and 
brown  flower.  These  should  be  planted  about  ten  inches  apart.  Still  taller  and 
back  of  this  princes'  feather  may  be  planted  and  still  back  of  this  cosmos.  This 
makes  an  excellent  background  for  the  entire  group  and  is  beautiful  even  if  the 
flowers  are  late  in  coming.  Another  pretty  bed  may  be  made  up  of  a  sweet  alyssum 
border  entirely  around  the  bed  with  blue  larkspur  or  corn  flower  in  the  middle.  An- 
other group  is  candytuft  and  calliopsis. 

Impress  the  necessity  of  preparing  the  soil  properly  before  planting  their  seeds 
and  of  planting  the  seeds  near  enough  to  the  surface.  A  good  rule  to  follow  is  to 
plant  each  seed  as  deep  as  four  times  its  own  diameter.  To  cultivate  the  plants  keep 
the  soil  stirred  and  fine  on  top  even  if  there  are  no  weeds  to  pull  up. 

LESSON  17.  BIEDS. — Can  you  name  some  birds  that  are  specially  useful  in 
protecting  our  trees  from  insects?  Eeview  the  woodpeckers,  the  hairy  and  downy, 
that  kill  so  many  borers  in  our  fruit  trees,  and  the  chickadee  that  feeds  all  winter 
upon  insect  eggs  around  the  buds  and  twigs  of  the  trees.  Other  birds  that  are  use- 
ful to  the  trees  are  nuthatches  and  brown  creepers  that  creep  over  the  trunk  eating 


97 

eggs  and  tiny  insects  that  are  stowed  away  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark.     It  will  add 
much  to  this  lesson  to  have  pictures  of  these  various  tree  protectors. 

LESSOX  18. — Most  of  these  little  birds  that  we  have  been  talking  about  are 
with  us  during  the  winter.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  birds  that  stay  with  us  all 
winter?  (Among  these  are  the  jay,  crow,  kinglets,  tree  sparrow,  horned  lark  and 
occasionally  a  meadow  lark.  Are  any  of  these  with  us  also  during  the  summer  time  I 
A  number  of  these  stay  with  us  all  the  year  around  and  so  we  call  these  permanent 
residents.  Can  you  name  four  birds  that  are  permanent  residents?  (Jay,  crow, 
chickadee,  downy  woodpecker.) 

Some  of  the  little  birds  that  are  with  us  during  the  winter  time  are  winter 
visitors.  They  come  to  us  from  the  far  north  to  spend  the  winter  and  when  spring 
arrives  they  go  back  north  to  spend  the  summer  and  rear  their  young.  Among  these 
are  the  kinglet,  tree  sparrow  and  brown  creeper.  These  birds  are  called  winter  resi- 
dents. 

Can  you  name  some  birds  that  stay  with  us  only  during  the  summer?  These  we 
call  summer  residents.  They  are  birds  that  come  to  us  in  the  spring,  build  their  nests 
and  rear  their  young,  and  then  in  the  fall  go  south  to  spend  the  winter.  The  great- 
est number  of  our  birds  belong  to  this  group.  They  are  robins,  blue  birds,  orioles, 
thrushes,  fly  catchers,  and  others. 

LESSON  19.— There  is  another  class  of  birds  that  we  call  migrants.  They  come 
to  us  for  a  short  time  in  the  spring  and  again  in  the  fall.  Among  them  are  some  of 
our  very  best  tree  protectors.  They  stop  with  us  a  few  days  or  perhaps  a  week  as 
they  travel  from  the  south  where  they  spend  the  winter  up  to  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  where  they  spend  the  summer.  Watch  carefully  among 
the  trees  the  first,  second,  and  third  weeks  of  May  for  small  birds  about  the  size  of 
wrens.  You  will  find  them  flitting  about  among  the  twigs,  sometimes  singing  songs, 
sometimes  merely  chirping,  always  looking  among  the  young  leaves  and  twigs  for 
insects.  These  little  birds  are  wood  warblers.  Some  of  them  are  brightly  colored 
with  yellow,  bright  orange,  blue  and  dark  green.  There  are  about  thirty  different 
kinds" that  visit  us  every  spring  and  fall.  Two  of  them,  however,  stay  with  us  and 
build  their  nests.  These  are  the  summer  yellow  bird  and  the  Maryland  yellow  throat. 
The  yellow  bird  is  the  most  yellow  of  all  the  birds  we  have.  It  has  a  few  little 
streaks  of  brown  on  the  breast  and  Lhe  wings  and  tail  are  duller  in  color  than  the 
rest  of  the  body.  The  Maryland  yellow  throats  we  may  find  around  the  streams  and 
hedges  where  they  build  their  nests.  Their  throats  are  bright  yellow  and  the  sides 
of  their  heads  are  black.  If  you  once  see  one  of  these  little  birds  you  will  never 
forget  it. 

VACATION  NOTES. — Besides  the  plan  suggested  for  vacation  on  the  potato 
study,  encourage  the  children  to  make  observations  and  keep  records  of  the  fruit 
trees.  Watch  carefully  to  see  if  you  can  find  out  just  what  part  of  each  flower  pro- 
duces the  fruit  that  AVC  eat.  What  part  makes  the  apple,  pear,  cherry? 

Make  observations  of  the  squash,  pumpkin,  melons,  and  cucumber  flowers.  Note 
their  shape.  See  if  you  can  find  all  the  parts  that  we  found  in  the  fruit  tree  flowers. 
Watch  to  see  what  part  of  these  flowers  produce  the  fruit.  When  are  cucumbers 
ready  for  use?  Decide  which  kind  you  prefer  for  slicing,  for  pickling.  Observe  any 
insect  enemies  that  you  may  find  on  your  cucumber  vines. 


98 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  SEVENTH  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  SEPTEMBER. — Report  of  vacation  activities  including  work 
done  and  money  earned.  Start  calendar  of  farm  activities  for  September.  Continue 
this  for  each  month  throughout  the  year.  Make  plans  for  out-of -school  work  for 
partial  credit.  Preliminary  work  on  icheat. 

Injects  injurious  to  corn,  to  fruit  trees,  to  clover,  to  garden  crops.  Beneficial 
insects;  ground  beetle,  ladybirds,  braconids  and  other  parasites. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  work  may  well  take  on  a  more  decided  agri- 
cultural trend.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  based  upon  the  underlying  principles 
of  science.  Hence  the  methods  employed  should  be  similar  to  those  used  in  the  lower 
grades;  that  is,  the  work  of  observation  and  handling  of  objects  must  be  continued. 
In  no  other  way  can  the  work  do  for  the  pupils  all  that  it  is  capable  of  doing. 

It  is  most  sincerely  hoped  that  the  observation  work  will  be  carried  on  in  these 
grades  even  if  a  text  book  in  agriculture  is  used.  A  book  can  never  take  the  place 
of  actual  hand  to  hand  contact  with  real  objects.  It  may  be  profitably  used  to  sup- 
plement the  work  of  observation.  The  directions  for  observation  may  be  placed  with 
profit  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  so  that  much  of  this  work  may  be  done  outside  of 
the  class  period.  In  these  grades  every  pupil  should  keep  a  simple  note  book  in  which 
he  records  briefly,  yet  accurately,  the  various  studies,  experiments  and  observations. 

Teachers  who  are  planning  to  do  this  work  in  agriculture  should  collect  material 
for  the  work  during  the  summer  months.  The  following  is  a  list  of  material  that 
will  be  found  helpful: 

A  few  heads  of  oats. 

Some  smutted  oats. 

Some  heads  of  wheat. 

A  collection  of  common  insects  pests  and  beneficial  insects. 

A  few  small  ears  of  corn  gathered  when  the  shoots  first  appear.  These  should 
be  put  up  in  alcohol  or  a  four  per  cent  solution  of  formalin.  A  mason  jar  carefully 
sealed  serves  admirably  for  this. 

A  few  tassels  from  green  corn  carefully  dried  and  preserved. 

Some  corn  smut. 

While  most  of  the  lessons  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  time,  the  following  plan 
is  suggested  in  order  to  get  all  of  the  work  started  at  the  beginning  of  the  term: 
After  the  first  three  or  four  lessons  in  which  arrangements  for  home  work,  etc.,  are 
planned,  a  few  lessons  on  insects  should  be  taken  up  so  that  the  pupils  may  begin 
collecting.  Follow  this  with  the  first  three  lessons  on  wheat  suggested  in  the  October 
number.  In  this  way  the  germination  and  purity  tests  will  be  made  before  wheat 
is  planted.  Then  return  to  insect  study  for  the  rest  of  the  month. 

WORK  FOR  BOYS  WHO  ARE  OUT  OF  SCHOOL  UNTIL  AFTER  CORN 
HUSKING. — In  districts  where  boys  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  can  not  enter 
school  until  after  corn  husking  the  teacher  should  call  a  meeting  of  these  boys  early 
in  the  term  and  give  them  some  outline  studies  of  insects,  wheat,  and  corn.  They 
will  have  ample  opportunity  to  make  many  interesting  observations  in  connection 
with  their  work.  They  should  also  be  encouraged  to  keep  the  farm  calendar  and  a 
record  of  the  work  they  are  doing  just  as  the  pupils  in  the  school  do. 

REPORTS  OF  VACATION  WORK.  LESSON  1.— If  the  pupils  have  been  car- 
rying on  experiments  and  observations  during  the  summer,  the  first  lesson  should  be 
given  to  reports  of  work  done,  the  difficulties  encountered,  and  the  present  conditions 
of  the  plants  studied.  It  may  be  necessary  to  spend  more  than  one  lesson  on  these 
reports. 

LESSON  2. — Have  the  pupils  make  plans  to  keep  a  /'farm  calendar"  which 
will  show  the  activities  on  the  farm  for  the  month.  This  should  be  placed  in  the 
note  book  and  several  pages  reserved  so  that  the  items  for  the  entire  month  will 
stand  together.  The  following  form  is  suggested: 


99 

FARM  CALENDAR  FOR  SEPTEMBER 


1 

First  week 

1.     Finished  plowing  for  wheat. 

Sept,  3-9th 

2.     Began  cutting  corn  for  silo. 

Etc. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  spend  one  recitation  period  in  comparing  calendars. 
This  will  give  opportunity  for  an  interesting  discussion  of  all  the  activities  carried 
on  in  the  district  during  the  month. 

LESSONS  3  AND  4. — It  has  been  hoped  that  pupils  in  this  year's  work  may 
have  some  definite  tasks  at  home  that  will  fit  into  their  school  course  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  receive  credit  in  the  course  in  agriculture  for  the  work  done  at  home. 
The  practicability  of  this  plan  is  yet  to  be  tried.  We  hope  that  a  few  strong  teach- 
ers who  have  the  cooperation  of  patrons  may  undertake  this  work.  Enough  other 
work  will  be  outlined  for  the  months  so  that  teachers  who  feel  they  can  not  do  this 
work  with  profit  will  have  plenty  of  other  material. 

In  arranging  this  work,  let  each  pupil  name  a  certain  home  task  for  which  he 
will  be  responsible  each  day.  It  may  be  milking,  feeding  the  pigs,  currying  and  bed- 
ding the  horses,  and,  on  the  part  of  the  girls,  some  household  task.  A  record  of  the 
work  should  be  kept  on  a  separate  page  of  the  note  book  or  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  or 
card.  The  record  should  show  the  name  of  the  piece  of  work,  the  time  spent,  and 
how  well  done.  This  last  item  should  be  given  by  the  parents.  A  space  for  remarks 
may  be  left  in  which  the  pupils  may  record  any  points  of  interest  that  he  discovered 
in  connection  with  this  special  work.  A  visit  from  the  teacher  during  the  month  to 
the  home  of  the  pupil  to  talk  over  the  work  that  he  is  doing  will  be  in  incentive  to  do 
the  best  work. 

At  the  end  of  each  mouth  use  the  time  of  one  recitation  for  reports  and  discus- 
sion of  the  work. 

INSECTS. — Insect  study  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  linked  as 
closely  as  possible  with  the  study  of  plants.  Insects  are  so  intimately  connected  with 
the  life  and  success  of  crops  of  all  kinds  that  it  is  worth  while  for  the  pupils  to  know 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  habits  and  life  history  of  these  little  creatures, to  recog- 
nize friends  and  foes  and  to  learn  some  of  the  ways  of  combating  the  pests  and  in- 
creasing the  numbers  of  the  beneficial  insects. 

The  plant  life  of  any  locality  should  largely  determine  the  special  insects  to  be 
emphasized.  In  a  region  where  corn  is  the  chief  crop,  insects  pests  common  to  this 
plant  should  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  work.  In  a  fruit  growing  community,  insects 
found  in  fruit  trees  and  shrubs  should  receive  most  attention. 

The  equipment  necessary  for  insect  study  is  suggested  under  grasshopper  studies 
in  the  fifth  grade ;  since  in  this  grade,  however,  a  collection  of  insects  is  desirable, 
a  cyanide  jar  to  use  in  killing  specimens  should  be  added  to  the  equipment.  To  make 
a  cyanide  jar,  place  five  cents'  worth  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  the  bottom  of  a  wide 
mouthed  bottle;  a  pint  mason  jar  is  very  good  for  this  purpose.  Make  a  stiff  paste 
with  water  and  plaster  of  Paris ;  pour  this  over  the  cyanide,  covering  it  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  depth.  Allow  the  bottle  to  stand  open  about  two  hours,  then  close  it 
up  tightly,  and  keep  closed  except  when  putting  insects  in  or  taking  them  out.  Write 
the  word  "Poison"  on  a  piece  of  paper  and  paste  it  on  the  jar. 

If  the  pupils  have  had  no  previous  study  of  insects,  the  lesson  should  begin  with 
some  of  the  larger  forms  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  charac- 
teristics common  to  all  insects.  A  grasshopper  is  a  good  type  for  this  study. 

LESSONS  5  TO  7. —  (The  number  of  lessons  given  to  this  preliminary  work  will 
depend  upon  the  knowledge  and  previous  training  of  the  pupils.  In  preparation  for 
the  lesson,  ask  the  members  of  the  closs  to  bring  in,  at  least,  one  large  grasshopper. 
Place  the  grasshopper  in  the  cyanide  jar  a  few  hours  before  the  time  for  the  lesson. 
Let  the  pupils  find  the  answers  to  these  questions  by  observation.)  How  many  body 
divisions  can  you  see  in  a  grasshopper?  Look  both  at  the  upper  and  under  surfaces. 
(The  pupils  should  make  out  the  following  parts:  The  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  ab- 
domen. The  thorax  is  made  up  of  three  rings,  the  first  of  which  forms  the  cape-like 
part  back  of  the  head.  This  is  called  the  pro-thorax.  The  second  and  third  rings 


100 

are  so  closely  united  that  the  division  line  cannot  be  found;  however,  the  pupils  should 
know  that  the  second  pair  of  legs  are  attached  to  the  second  ring,  and  the  third  pair 
of  legs  to  the  third  ring.)  Study  the  structure  of  the  abdomen,  noting  that  it  is 
made  up  of  rings.  Count  the  rings  and  decide  whether  they  overlap  from  front  to 
back  or  from  back  to  front. 

For  the  study  of  the  head,  antennae,  eyes,  mouth,  habits  of  feeding,  legs,  wings 
and  life  history,  use  the  topics  suggested  for  fifth  year. 

LESSON  8. — The  grasshopper  is  an  excellent  example  of  an  insect  with  a  biting 
mouth.  All  insects  have  either  biting  mouths  with  strong  jaws,  or  sucking  mouths. 
If  possible,  follow  the  study  of  the  grasshopper  with  that  of  an  insect  with  a  sucking 
mouth.  The  squash  bug,  a  dark  gray  insect  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length 
found  on  squash  and  pumpkin  vines,  is  a  good  type.  Also  the  red  and  black  box 
elder  bug,  the  stink  bug,  or  the  cicada.  This  cicada  is  often  called  the  locust,  which 
is  familiar,  because  of  the  long  drawn  out  song  that  is  heard  every  summer  in  trees 
of  various  kinds. 

The  following  outline  may  be  used  with  any  of  the  above  types.  Notice  the 
general  form  of  the  body.  Compare  with  the  grasshopper  and  determine  whether 
or  not  the  same  parts  are  present.  Look  at  the  front  part  of  the  head  for  the  mouth. 
You  will  find  a  straight  tube  lying  on  the  under  part  of  the  body,  extending  as  far 
backward,  often,  as  the  last  pair  of  legs.  This  is  the  sucking  tube.  At  the  lower 
part,  the  jaws  are  so  arranged  that  the  insect  may  pierce  through  the  membrane  of 
leaves  and  stems  and  suck  the  juices  from  the  plant.  Notice  the  wings  of  the  insect. 
How  are  they  related  to  each  other?  You  will  find  that  the  ends  of  the  outer  wings 
overlap  each  other.  All  insects  with  wings  of  this  kind  and  the  piercing  sucking 
mouth  are  true  bugs. 

INSECT  PESTS. — Encourage  the  pupils  to  make  a  collection  of  insects  pests 
found  in  the  district,  also  a  collection  of  beneficial  insects.  Corn  pests  that  are  com- 
mon and  that  may  be  studied  in  the  fall  are  the  corn-root  aphis,  the  corn  ear  worm, 
the  white  grub,  the  corn  root  worm,  the  cut  worm. 

THE  COEN  BOOT  APHIS.  LESSON  9. — It  may  not  be  possible  to  find  the 
corn  root  aphis  feeding  on  the  roots  of  the  corn  in  September;  however  have  the 
children  look  on  the  roots  of  stunted  stalks  of  corn.  They  may  find  a  few  aphids 
and  possibly  some  ants  that  should  be  studied  in  this  connection.  The  aphids  should 
be  studied,  however,  even  if  the  corn  root  aphis  can  not  be  found.  The  pupils  will 
find  aphids  or  plant  lice  on  cabbage,  lettuce  leaves,  stems  of  wild  lettuce,  cherry,  wil- 
low and  plum  stems,  etc.  They  are  small  insects  which  vary  much  in  color;  some  are 
black,  some  are  red,  some  green.  Have  in  the  class  some  leaves  or  stems  with  aphids 
on  them.  Do  all  of  the  aphids  on  the  plant  look  alike?  (You  will  probably  find  on 
one  plant  several  stages  of  the  insect;  some  small  ones  without  wings,  some  larger 
with  pads  on  the  back,  which  are  the  beginnings  of  wings,  and  some  with  quite  large 
wings  folded  above  the  body.  These  look  like  small  flies  or  small  gnats.)  What  are 
the  aphids  doing?  Hold  the  leaf  or  stem  on  a  level  with  the  eye  and  look  closely  at 
the  head,  to  find  the  slender  sucking  tube,  which  is  inserted  in  the  leaf  or  stem.  It  is 
just  like  the  sucking  tube  of  the  squash  bug.  What  kind  of  food  then  does  an  aphid 
eat,  solid  or  liquid?  Do  you  think  putting  poison  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  will  kill 
the  aphids?  Why?  (In  order  to  kill  them,  something  must  be  used  that  will  destroy 
the  insects  by  coming  into  contact  with  their  bodies,  since  they  suck  the  juices  from 
the  inside,  poison  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  will  not  harm  them.  How  many  legs  has 
an  aphid?  Observe  how  the  aphids  hold  their  antennae. 

LESSON  10. — Do  you  find  other  insects  on  the  plants  with  the  aphids?  (The 
pupils  will  probably  find  ants.)  Try  to  find  out  what  the  ants  are  doing.  (This 
observation  can  best  be  made  out  of  doors,  by  watching  the  ants  on  the  plants  where 
aphids  are  feeding.)  Aphids  throw  out  from  their  body  a  sweet  liquid  known 
as  honey  dew.  Ants  are  very  fond  of  this  sweet  substance,  so  that  wherever  you  find 
plant  lice  you  will  always  find  some  ants.  You  will  often  find  flies,  too,  sip- 
ping the  honey  dew  that  has  dropped  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves. 

LESSON  11. — If  the  corn  root  aphis  has  been  found  upon  the  roots  of  corn,  a 
careful  study  should  be  made  of  these.  A  small  brown  ant  will  probably  be  found 
in  the  cornfields  near  the  roots,  or  perhaps  nests  of  these  may  be  found  in  the  corn- 
field. Even  if  it  is  too  late  to  find  the  corn  root  aphis  this  fall,  encourage  the  boys  to 


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remember  to  look  for  it  next  year  when  the  corn  is  growing.     Encourage  them  also 
to  destroy  any  ants'  nests  that  may  be  found  in  the  cornfield  or  vicinity. 

LESSON  12. — Why  should  they  do  this?  The  female  aphids  lay  their  shiny 
black,  oval  eggs  in  the  ground  during  the  fall  months.  The  little  brown  ants  find 
these,  carry  them  to  their  underground  homes;  and  keep  them  safely  through  the 
winter.  They  often  carry  the  eggs  out  into  the  sunshine  during  the  warm  part  of 
the  day  and  back  into  the  burrows  at  night.  These  eggs  hatch  in  the  early  spring 
into  young  aphids.  The  ants  at  once  place  these  on  the  roots  of  smart  weeds  or  some 
other  plant.  When  the  corn  is  beginning  to  grow,  the  ants  place  the  aphids  on  the 
corn  roots,  from  which  they  suck  the  juices  with  their  sharp  sucking  tubes.  The  ants 
get  their  pay  for  all  this  work  in  the  form  of  honey  dew  which  the  aphids  throw  out 
of  their  bodies. 

Each  aphid  that  hatches  from  an  egg  in  the  spring  is  called  a  stem  mother.  In 
less  than  a  month  this  stem  mother  begins  to  reproduce  young.  All  these  are  females 
which  in  a  month's  time  begin  also  to  produce  young.  So  in  less  than  two  months 
the  stem  mother  may  become  the  ancestor  of  thousands  of  young  lice.  This  goes  on 
all  summer.  Most  of  these  aphids  are  wingless.  Once  in  a  while  there  is  a  genera- 
tion that  has  wings.  These  fly  away  to  some  other  part  of  the  field,  or  to  another 
field.  Some  of  them  drop  to  the  ground,  and  are  found  by  ants  that  carry  them 
at  once  to  corn  roots.  In  the  fall  a  brood  of  true  males  and  females  are  produced. 
These  females  are  the  ones  that  deposit  eggs  for  the  next  year's  crop  of  aphids.  You 
can  readily  see  why  the  destruction  of  the  ant's  homes  is  to  be  encouraged. 

One  of  the  methods  employed  to  destroy  these  pests  is  to  break  up  the  ground 
as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  then  before  corn  planting  go  over  it  once  or 
twice  with  disc  or  cultivator  in  order  to  destroy  the  smart  weeds  and  as  many  of  the 
ants'  nests  as  possible. 

The  life  history  of  all  other  aphids  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  corn 
root  louse.  One  reason  they  are  so  destructive  is  because  they  multiply  so  rapidly. 

One  species  of  aphids  is  often  found  on  the  oats  in  early  summer.  It  is  known 
in  some  localities  as  the  ' '  green  bug. ' '  It  sucks  the  juice  from  the  stems  and  leaves 
of  the  oats,  and  is  often  very  destructive.  Aphids  have  many  natural  foes,  which 
we  shall  discuss  in  our  study  of  beneficial  insects. 

WHITE  GRUBS.  LESSON  13. — In  some  localities  white  grubs  are  common 
corn  pests.  They  feed  upon  a  variety  of  plants  besides  corn,  strawberry,  potato, 
beets  and  grasses. 

If  the  pupils  have  been  collecting  grubs,  there  will  be  a  supply  on  hand  for 
special  study.  To  keep  these  insects  alive  place  them  in  a  tin  pail  or  can,  in  which 
there  is  plenty  of  moist  soil.  Place  on  top  of  the  soil  a  piece  of  fresh  grass  sod, 
firm  it  down  with  your  hand,  keep  it  watered  but  not  wet.  Set  the  pail  aside  for 
several  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  carefully  lift  up  the  sod.  You  will  probably 
find  some  of  the  grubs  under  it.  Note  the  position  of  the  body.  Is  there  any  advan- 
tage in  keeping  the  body  curled  up  in  this  fashion?  Is  the  grub  lying  on  its  back 
or  under  side?  Has  it  a  tunnel  to  lie  in?  What  has  it  been  doing  here?  Look  at 
the  grass  roots.  Can  you  see  whether  any  of  these  have  been  eaten?  Look  carefully 
at  the  structure  of  the  insect.  Has  it  a  distinct  head?  How  does  the  head  differ  in 
color  from  the  body?  Is  the  body  hard  or  soft?  What  kind  of  a  mouth  has  the 
grub?  Look  at  the  front  of  the  head  for  the  strong  hook-like  jaws.  It  is  with  these 
that  the  grubs  bite  off  the  roots  of  plants  and  underground  stems.  Do  the  grubs  ever 
kill  plants  in  this  way?  (They  kill  not  only  many  hills  of  corn  in  some  fields  but 
great  tracts  of  grass  in  pastures  and  lawns.  They  often  kill  many  strawberry  plants.) 
How  many  legs  have  they?  Where  are  the  legs  situated?  What  is  the  use  of  these 
legs?  Place  the  insect  on  the  floor  or  desk.  Can  it  crawl  well?  Now  put  it  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  watch  to  see  how  it  succeeds  in  burrowing  into  the  ground. 
What  special  adaptation  do  you  find  on  the  feet  that  enable  them  to  dig  so  easily? 
Name  all  the  adaptations  these  insects  have  for  living  in  the  ground  rather  than 
on  the  surface. 

LESSON  14. — It  may  not  be  possible  for  the  pupils  to  work  out  any  part  of 
the  life  history  of  the  white  grub.  If  the  study  is  made  early  in  September,  it  is 
worth  while  trying  to  get  some  of  the  pupae.  If  the  larvae  have  been  kept  in  the 
pails  of  soil  for  some  time,  a  few  may  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  pail  to  pupate.  A 
pupa  looks  like  a  light  brown  mummy  with  undeveloped  wings  and  legs  folded  close 


102 

to  the  sides  and  under  part  of  the  body.  No  doubt  some  of  the  pupils  will  also  find 
in  the  ground  in  the  fall  some  of  the  grown-up  insects.  These  are  commonly  known 
as  June  bugs  or  May  beetles.  They  are  very  abundant  in  the  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer. Have  the  pupils  recall  what  they  know  about  June  bugs.  Do  these  insects  fly 
at  night  or  during  the  daytime?  (They  are  night  flies  and  are  attracted  by  lights. 
They  come  buzzing  into  our  homes  in  the  evening,  often  striking  against  the  walls 
and  dropping  to  the  floor.  They  are  dark  brown  in  color  and  have  very  hard  shell- 
like  wings.)  Who  has  ever  noticed  the  June  bugs  folding  up  the  inner  wings  when 
they  first  alight?  If  any  of  these  insects  are  found  by  the  pupils,  make  a  brief  study 
of  them.  Notice  how  the  outer  wings  are  related  to  each  other.  Do  they  overlap,  or 
just  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  back?  Lift  up  the  outer  wings  to  find  the  inner  ones. 
How  do  these  compare  in  length  with  the  outer  wings?  Which  pair  is  used  for  flight? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  hard  outer  wings? 

LESSON  15. — The  June  bugs  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground,  usually  in  June.  In 
a  short  time  the  eggs  hatch  into  tiny  white  grubs.  They  feed  first  upon  decaying 
matter  in  the  soil  and  a  little  later  upon  the  roots  of  plants.  When  cold  weather  ap- 
proaches they  burrow  down  into  the  ground  below  the  frost  line  and  sleep  during  the 
winter.  In  the  spring  they  come  up  to  the  surface  and  begin  feeding  upon  roots. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  they  make  a  little  tunnel  in  the  soil  and  change  into 
pupae.  They  remain  in  the  pupa  stage  probably  about  three  weeks  or  a  month  and 
then  change  into  the  mature  beetles.  The  mature  beetles,  however,  stay  in  the  ground 
without  feeding  until  the  next  spring.  The  pupils  will  probably  remember  having 
seen  many  of  these  beetles  in  the  soil  of  the  garden  and  the  fields  in  the  spring 
at  plowing  time. 

Since  white  grubs  are  such  pests,  the  question  of  how  to  get  rid  of  them  is  of 
interest  to  all  farmers.  As  yet  no  good  remedy  has  been  found.  Eotation  of  crops 
aids  in  keeping  the  grubs  in  check.  They  are  not  likely  to  be  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  clover  fields,  hence  when  clover  is  used  in  the  crop  rotation  the  grubs  are  not 
likely  to  become  very  abundant.  Fall  plowing  aids  some,  if  done  early,  in  killing 
pupae  and  larvae.  One  of  the  best  known  remedies  is  to  turn  pigs  into  the  field  when- 
ever that  is  possible.  Pigs  are  so  fond  of  grubs  that  they  will  dig  down  into  the  soil 
a  number  of  inches  in  order  to  eat  them.  Many  birds  help  to  lessen  the  number  of 
these  pests.  Robins  are  especially  fond  of  grubs. 

LESSON  16.— THE  CORN  ROOT  WORM.— The  northern  corn  root  worm  is  a 
common  corn  pest.  As  its  name  indicates,  it  feeds  upon  the  roots  of  the  corn.  Corn 
that  has  been  injured  by  these  pests  shows  the  results  in  several  wrays.  Sometimes 
there  are  spots  in  a  cornfield  in  which  the  corn  is  dwrarfed  in  size  and  produces 
nubbins  instead  of  good  ears.  If  the  rest  of  the  field  is  in  good  condition,  this  is  a 
pretty  sure  indication  that  the  worms  have  been  working  on  the  roots  of  the  corn. 
Because  of  the  injury  to  the  root  system,  corn  plants  infested  by  the  worms  are 
easily  tumbled  over.  This  is  especially  true  during  a  hard  rainstorm.  A  moderate 
wind  will  often  lay  a  whole  field  flat,  because  the  weakened  roots  are  not  able  to 
hold  up  the  stalks. 

The  corn  root  worm  is  the  young  or  larva  of  a  small  green  beetle.  Ask  the 
pupils  to  look  on  the  tassels  and  silks  of  corn,  on  flowers  of  wild  asters  and  golden 
rod  for  small  green  beetles.  These  beetles  are  about  the  size  of  lady  bugs  and  are 
grass  green  in  color  without  any  spots.  What  are  the  beetles  doing  on  the  corn  and 
the  flowers?  While  the  pupils  may  not  be  able  to  determine  this  by  observation, 
they  should  know  that  these  insects  feed  upon  the  pollen  of  the  corn  tassels  and  other 
flowers  and  also  eat  the  ends  of  the  gilks  of  the  corn.  If  they  are  abundant  at  the 
time  that  the  corn  is  blossoming,  thev  may  do  some  injury  by  preventing  pollination, 
since  they  eat  off  the  ends  of  the  silks. 

Place  a  few  of  the  beetle?  in  a  bottle  and  make  a  simple  study  of  them.  Note 
the  general  appearance>  color,  size,  feet  and  wings.  What  kind  of  mouths  do  you 
think  they  have,  biting  or  sucking?  (All  beetles  have  biting  mouths,  both  as  larva 
and  grown-up  insects.) 

The  question  of  how  the  small  green  beetles  are  related  to  the  corn  root  worm  is 
of  interest.  The  beetles  lay  the  eggs  an  inch  or  more  in  the  ground  in  the  fall.  So 
far  as  is  known,  the  eggs  are  deposited  only  in  cornfields.  They  remain  In  the  ground 
all  winter,  and  late  in  the  spring  the  egg  hatches  into  a  small  larva,  the  corn  root 
worm.  The  larva  is  white  in  color  and  not  much  larger  around  than  a  pin.  It  feeds 
upon  the  youngest  roots  of  the  corn.  Sometimes  as  many  as  a  hundred  of  these  worms 


103 

have  been  found  in  a  single  hill  of  corn.  In  feeding  they  burrow  into  the  roots  of 
the  corn  in  a  spiral  fashion.  The  burrowing  causes  the  roots  to  wither  and  die.  When 
the  larvae  are  ready  to  pupate  they  crawl  out  of  the  roots  of  the  corn,  but  still  remain 
in  the  ground.  They  remain  in  the  pupa  stage  a  short  time,  and  then  come  forth, 
the  small  green  beetles  that  we  have  already  studied. 

Xothing  as  yet  has  been  found  that  will  destroy  these  pests  after  they  actually 
get  started  to  work  on  the  roots.  Rotation  of  crops  seems  to  be  the  only  remedy. 
If  corn  is  not  planted  in  a  field  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  the  insects  will 
surely  die,  since  they  seem  unable  to  feed  upon  the  roots  of  other  plants.  It  is  only 
in  fields  then  in  which  corn  has  been  raised  for  a  number  of  consecutive  years  that 
these  pests  ever  become  abundant. 

LESSON  17. — THE  EAR  WORM. — Sometimes  the  corn  ear  worm  becomes  a 
very  great  pest.  It  attacks  sweet  corn  more  than  field  corn.  The  worms  are  found 
under  the,  husks  of  the  ears  late  in  the  fall.  By  looking  closely  the  pupils  will  see 
that  the  worms  eat  through  the  husks;  then  burrow  into  the  grains,  eating  great 
tunnels.  If  some  of  the  worms  are  brought  in  for  study,  note  the  shape  of  the  body 
and  the  color.  Do  the  worms  vary  in  this  respect?  Is  the  body  segmented?  Is  its 
head  distinct  from  the  body?  How  many  feet  has  the  worm?  Are  all  the  feet  the 
same  size  and  shape?  (The  three  pairs  near  the  head  are  the  true  legs.  The  four 
near  the  middle  and  one  near  the  back  part  of  the  body  are  called  pro-legs.)  Decide 
from  the  way  the  corn  is  eaten  whether  these  have  biting  or  sucking  mouths. 
This  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  moth.  If  the  pupils  keep  the  larvae  in  a  pail  with  some 
soil  in  it,  they  may  be  rewarded  by  having  the  worms  leave  the  ear  of  corn  and  go 
into  the  soil  to  pupate.  In  the  field  the  larva  makes  a  little  tunnel  in  the  soil  and 
in  this  changes  from  a  larva  to  the  pupa.  It  remains  in  the  ground  as  a  pupa  all 
winter.  Early  in  April  the  mature  insect  emerges  from  the  pupa.  This  is  a  yellow- 
ish tan  moth  that  often  flies  into  our  homes  in  the  evening  attracted  by  the  light. 
It  is  one  of  the  moths  that  is  commonly  called  a  moth  miller.  The  female  moth  lays 
its  eggs  on  the  corn  plants.  The  first  generation  live  chiefly  on  the  leaves  of  the 
young  corn.  They  grow  up  in  a  short  time,  pupate,  and  within  three  weeks  change 
into  the  moth.  There  are  three  generations  during  the  summer.  It  is  the  third 
generation  that  does  the  greatest  mischief  to  the  ears  of  corn  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  corn  pests.  Some  will  be  found  abundant  in  one 
locality,  some  in  another.  The  teacher  should  choose  for  special  study  those  that  are 
most  abundant  in  his  own  district.  Among  some  other  common  corn  pests  are  the 
chinch  bug,  the  several  varieties  of  cut  worm,  and  the  cornbill  bug. 

LESSON  18. — BENEFICIAL  INSECTS. — We  must  not  think  that  all  of  the 
insects  found  in  our  district  are  pests.  There  are  a  number  of  insects  that  are  our 
greatest  friends.  Instead  of  feeding  upon  plant  life,  they  feed  almost  wholly  upon 
the  insects  that  are  injurious  to  our  plants.  Among  the  beneficial  insects,  the  most 
familiar  are  the  lady  bugs,  or  lady  bird  beetles.  Have  the  pupils  look  for  these  in- 
sects on  the  garden  plants  and  weeds,  especially  those  on  which  plant  lice  are  found. 
Lady  bugs  may  be  kept  in  the  school  room  and  the  entire  life  history  studied,  if  they 
are  fed  upon  plant  lice.  There  are  several  different  species  that  are  common  every- 
where. The  nine  spot  lady  bug  is  a  yellowish  brown  with  nine  black  spots  on  the 
back.  The  two  spot  is  a  brick  red  in  color  with  two  black  spots  on  the  back.  The 
fifteen  spot  is  a  pink  gray  with  the  fifteen  black  spots  on  the  back.  The  common 
pink  red  beetle  is  known  as  the  thirteen  spot. 

For  study,  place  a  lady  bug  in  one  of  the  bottles  and  have  the  pupils  notice 
the  characteristics.  Compare  it  with  the  other  insects  studied.  Have  them  decide 
why  it  should  be  called  a  beetle  rather  than  a  bug. 

Wherever  the  mature  lady  bugs  are,  the  larvae  usually  are  present  also.  These 
do  not  look  any  more  like  a  grown  up  lady  bug  than  a  caterpillar  looks  like  a  butter- 
fly. Their  bodies  are  long,  shaped  something  like  a  lizard  or  alligator.  The  color 
is  usually  black  or  gray  with  a  few  dots  of  orange  on  the  back.  Stiff  hairs  or  spines 
stick  out  from  the  body,  giving  them  rather  a  fierce  appearance.  If  these  are  found, 
watch  them  feed  upon  the  plant  lice.  Decide  what  kind  of  mouths  they  have.  How 
many  feet  have  they?  They  remain  in  the  larvae  stage  but  a  short  time,  then  they 
fasten  themselves  by  the  back  part  of  the  body  to  a  leaf  or  some  other  support  and 
change  into  pupae.  They  remain  in  the  pupa  stage  a  short  time,  about  a  week  or 
ten  days,  and  then  the  grown  up  lady  bugs  come  forth.  The  lady  bugs  remain  in 


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the  mature  stage  all  winter.  Have  the  pupils  look  under  leaves  and  around  the  roots 
of  shrubs  and  herbs  for  groups  of  these  lady  bugs,  that  have  collected  here  to  spend 
their  winter. 

Both  the  larvae  and  the  adult  beetles  eat  plant  lice,  eggs  of  moths  and  goose- 
berry worms,  and  upon  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  potato  beetle,  therefore  we  should 
be  very  careful  not  to  destroy  any  lady  bugs.  They  help,  more  than  we  can  estimate, 
to  keep  in  check  many  of  our  insect  pests. 

LESSON  19. — Another  interesting  beneficial  insect  is  the  lace  wing  fly  and  its 
larva.  The  mature  insect  may  be  found  in  the  fall  in  gardens,  orchards  and  mea- 
dows. It  remains  resting  on  the  underside  of  leaves  and  it  is  only  when  disturbed 
that  it  flies.  It  is  a  light  green  insect  with  a  very  slender  body  and  four  beautiful 
light  green,  lacy  looking  wings.  Its  eyes  are  like  drops  of  bright  gold,  so  it  is  often 
called  golden  eyes.  It  is  less  than  an  inch  in  length.  When  disturbed,  it  whirls  up- 
ward, reminding  one  of  a  whirligig.  The  young  may  be  found  quite  late  in  Septem- 
ber on  any  infested  with  plant  lice.  It  resembles  somewhat  the  larva  of  lady  bugs 
but  is  lighter  in  color  and  its  jaws  are  so  long  that  they  look  like  small  horns.  The 
pupils,  if  they  find  any  of  these  insects,  should  place  them  in  bottles,  feeding  them 
with  lice.  Observe  the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  insects.  Watch  them  im- 
pale the  plant  lice  on  their  horn-like  jaws  while  they  suck  the  juices  from  their  bodies. 
These  insects  are  often  called  aphis-lions,  because  they  act  like  fierce  lions  preying 
upon  the  aphids.  The  pupils  may  see  the  larva  go  into  the  pupa  stage.  It  spins  a 
round  white  cocoon  on  the  leaves  and  inside  of  this  changes  from  a  larva  to  a  pupa. 
Some  of  them  stay  in  the  pupa  stage  all  winter,  so  if  the  bottles  are  put  away 
and  kept  until  spring,  the  mature  insect  will  emerge.  The  mature  insect  will  then 
deposit  her  eggs  for  the  first  generation  in  the  spring.  The  eggs  of  the  lace  wing 
are  very  interesting.  Some  of  the  pupils  have  probably  seen  them,  even  if  they  did 
not  know  what  they  were.  They  are  placed  on  the  ends  of  small  strands  of  silk  about 
one-half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  The  strands  are  fastened  to  twigs  or  leaves. 
The  female  lace  wing  does  this  to  prevent  the  first  larva  that  hatches  from  destroy- 
ing the  rest  of  the  eggs.  If  the  eggs  were  placed  flat  upon  the  leaves,  the  first  aphis- 
lion  that  hatched  would  probably  eat  up  all  the  rest. 

The  lace  wing  larvae  feed  not  only  upon  plant  lice,  but  upon  various  other  insect 
pests,  so  that  they  should  be  placed  along  with  the  lady  bugs  as  our  chief  benefactors. 

LESSON  20. — There  are  several  other  insects  that  the  pupils  will  probably  find 
and  bring  in  for  study,  that  may  be  regarded  as  beneficial.  One  of  these  is  a  large 
green  beetle  about  an  inch  in  length.  It  has  very  long  legs  and  is  usually  found  in 
the  garden  and  cornfields.  The  underpart  of  the  body  is  dark  blue.  This  beetle  is 
known  as  the  searcher,  because  it  searches  so  diligently  for  caterpillars  of  various 
kinds.  It  has  been  known  to  climb  cornstalks  in  search  of  the  corn  ear  worm. 

The  dragon  fly,  often  called  snake  feeder  or  snake  doctor,  is  a  benefactor,  be- 
cause it  feeds  wholly  upon  mosquitos,  gnats  and  flies. 

LESSON  21. — Besides  the  insects  that  benefit  us  by  catching  and  devouring  in- 
sect pests,  we  have  another  class  that  kill  off  pests  in  a  very  different  manner. 
They  are  known  as  parasites,  because  they  live  in  the  bodies  of  insects,  feeding  upon 
the  liquids  and  tissues  of  their  hosts,  and  in  this  way  killing  off  great  numbers. 
Ask  the  pupils  how  many  have  seen  tomato  worms  whose  backs  were  covered  with 
small  white  bodies.  If  tomato  worms  are  found  with  these  objects  on  them,  bring 
them  in  for  study.  Look  closely  with  a  lens  and  you  will  see  that  these  bodies  are 
small,  silken  cocoons.  Place  the  worms  in  jars,  tie  a  cover  over  the  top  of  the  jar  and 
in  a  few  weeks  you  will  find  the  jar  filled  with  tiny  insects  looking  like  gnats  or  flies. 
These  are  braconid  flies  and  are  relatives  of  bees  and  wasps.  Now  examine  the  co- 
coons to  find  the  openings  through  which  the  braconids  emerged.  The  life  history 
of  these  insects  is  as  follows:  Some  time  in  the  summer  a  little  braconid  fly  places 
its  eggs  under  the  skin  of  a<  tomato  worm.  The  eggs  hatch  into  small  white  grubs 
like  tiny  maggots.  These  feed  upon  fluids  in  the  body  of  the  tomato  worm  and  when 
they  are  grown  up  as  larvae  they  eat  holes  through  the  skin  of  the  tomato  worm, 
come  out  and  spin  their  cocoons.  In  these  cocoons  they  change  into  pupae  and,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  come  out  a  few  weeks  later  as  grown-up  flies.  A  tomato  worm  in 
which  these  braconids  have  fed,  never  reaches  maturity,  but  dies  either  before  it  pu- 
pates or  soon  afterwards.  So  numerous  are  these  little  flies  in  some  localities  that  the 
tomato  worm  has  become  almost  extinct.  Ask  the  pupils  to  look  on  cabbage  leaves 
for  bunches  of  small  yellow  cocoons.  These  are  cocoons  of  another  braconid  fly,  whose 


105 

larvae  live  in  the  bodies  of  cabbage  worms.  These  little  insects  kill  off  hundreds  of 
cabbage  worms  every  season. 

Ichneumon  flies  are  little  insects  larger  than  the  braconids.  They  deposit  their 
eggs  in  many  different  kinds  of  caterpillars  and  thus  destroy  those  injurious  insects. 
A  very  common  ichneumon  keeps  the  white  marked  tussock  moth  in  check  in  Illinois. 

We  have  suggested  above  special  studies  of  some  of  the  most  common  insects. 
In  many  localities,  however,  other  insects  will  certainly  be  brought  in  by  the  pupils. 
Encourage  the  study  of  such  insects.  Have  the  pupils  find  out  all  they  can  about 
their  habits  and  food  by  observation,  following  the  plans  suggested  in  the  study  of 
the  grasshopper  or  squash  bug.  If  larvae  are  brought  in,  they  should  be  fed  the  leaves 
of  plants  upon  which  they  were  found.  The  pupils  should  work  out  as  many  life  his- 
tories as  possible.  Larva?  found  in  the  fall,  as  a  rule,  spend  the  winter  in  the  pupa 
stage.  In  many  cases  the  pupa  may  be  obtained  in  the  jars  and  vivarium  and  kept 
until  spring,  then  the  mature  insects  may  be  identified.  It  will  be  worth  while  to  have 
the  pupils  start  a  collection  of  insects,  grouping  together  those  that  are  pests  and 
making  another  group  of  the  beneficial  insects.  Any  tight  pasteboard  box  may  be 
used  for  the  collection.  Put  an  interlining  of  pasteboard  in  the  bottom,  in  which  to 
stick  pins.  Kill  the  insects  by  placing  them  in  the  cyanide  jar.  Stick  a  pin  through 
the  thorax  when  you  are  sure  that  the  insects  are  dead  and  then  place  the  pin  in  the 
lining  of  the  pasteboard  box.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  put  some  camphor  gum  or  moth 
balls  in  the  box  to  keep  out  a  little  museum  beetle  which  may  destroy  the  collection. 

Below  is  a  list  of  other  common  insects  with  brief  descriptions. 

THE    PESTS 

THE  WHITE  MARKED  TUSSOCK  MOTH.— The  larva  is  a  slender  cater- 
pillar with  a  coral  red  head  and  yellowish,  hairy  body.  On  the  back  are  four  white 
tufts  and  back  of  the  head  are  two  black  horns  of  hair.  There  is  another  hair  like 
horn  on  the  back  near  the  hinder  part.  The  larvae  spin  cocoons  late  in  the  fall.  The 
moth  emerges  and  lays  her  eggs  in  a  white  frothy  mass  on  the  outside  of  the  cocoon. 
They  remain  in  the  egg  stage  over  winter. 

BOX  ELDER  BUG.— A  red  and  black  bug  that  resembles  a  squash  bug.  The 
bugs  are  sometimes  found  in  great  numbers  late  in  the  fall.  The  different  stages 
may  be  found,  some  grown  up,  some  with  the  beginnings  of  wings.  These  stay  in 
the  mature  stage  over  winter. 

THE  FALL  WEB  WORM. — These  insects  are  larvas  of  a  gray  moth.  The 
whole  family,  sometimes  consisting  of  several  hundred,  live  in  a  web  which  they 
spin  for  themselves  over  the  branches  of  trees.  They  are  found  on  box  elders,  apples 
and  other  trees. 

THE  CODDLING  MOTH. — The  young  of  this  moth  lives  in  apples  and  we  know 
it  as  an  apple  worm.  If  you  put  some  apple  worms  in  a  box  and  feed  them  upon 
apples  they  will  pupate  toward  spring  and  you  will  be  able  to  see  the  little  moth 
that  lays  its  eggs  on  the  apples. 

PEACH  TREE  BORER. — Look  on  the  main  stem  of  the  peach  tree  for  small 
bunches  of  gum  that  has  come  from  the  tree.  With  a  knife  carefully  cut  into  the 
tree,  just  a  little  under  the  bark  at  this  place  and  you  will  find  a  white  worm.  This 
is  the  larva  of  a  moth.  It  feeds  upon  the  juicy  inner  bark  and  sap  of  the  tree.  One 
of  the  best  ways  to  get  rid  of  these  borers  is  to  dig  them  out  of  the  tree  with  a  stiff 
wire  or  knife. 

GARDEN   PESTS 

THE  COLORADO  POTATO  BEETLE. — This  is  the  common  roundish,  yellow 
and  black,  striped  potato  bug.  It  lives  over  winter  in  the  ground  in  the  adult  stage. 

THE  STRIPED  CUCUMBER  BEETLE.— A  small  yellowish  green  and  black 
striped  beetle.  It  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  cucumber,  squashes  and  melons.  Its  larvae 
bore  into  the  stems  of  the  plants  and  often  destroy  the  young  vines. 

THE  SPOTTED  CUCUMBER  BEETLES.— This  is  similar  in  its  habits  to  the 
striped  cucumber  beetle.  It  is  greenish  with  twelve  black  spots. 


106 

STRAWBERRY  LEAF  ROLLER. — This  is  a  tiny  moth  that  lays  its  eggs  on 
the  strawberry  plants.  The  larva  rolls  the  leaf  over  and  lives  and  feeds  inside 
the  rolled  leaf.  It  pupates  inside  the  leaf  and  spends  the  winter  there. 

THE  CABBAGE  WORM. — This  is  the  larvas  of  the  common  white  butterfly. 
If  the  worm  is  obtained  early  in  September  the  entire  life  history  may  be  wrorked 
out  in  the  school  room. 

THE  CABBAGE  MOTH. — This  moth  is  not  as  large  as  the  white  cabbage 
butterfly.  It  flies  at  night  instead  of  during  the  daylight.  The  larva  differs  from 
the  cabbage  worm  somewhat  in  color.  It  has  light  stripes  on  its  back.  It  does  not 
have  as  many  feet,  so  it  has  to  loop  up  when  it  walks.  It  makes  a  thin  walled  co- 
coon in  which  it  pupates.  Its  life  history  may  also  be  worked  out  in  the  school  room. 

FIELD  PESTS 

CHINCH  BUGS. — Small  insects  dark  in  color  that  feed  upon  wheat  and  corn. 

THE  CORN  BILL  BUG. — This  is  a  small,  dark  beetle  with  a  long  snout.  It 
spends  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage  and  may  sometimes  be  found  late  in  the  fall. 
It  hibernates  over  winter  and  in  the  spring  comes  forth  to  feed  upon  the  young 
corn  stems. 

CUT  WORMS. — These  do  most  of  their  mischief  in  the  spring,  but  the  mature 
moths  are  often  found  flying  around  in  September.  They  are  dull  colored  moths 
that  we  often  call  moth  millers. 

HESSIAN  FLY. — This  is  a  very  small  insect  that  is  not  likely  to  be  found  by 
the  pupils.  However,  it  is  such  a  pest  that  it  should  be  named  among  field  insects. 
There  are  several  broods  during  the  summer.  The  last  one  attacks  the  young  wheat 
in  the  fall.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  stems  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
the  larvae  feed  there,  changing  to  pupae  in  the  stems  of  the  wheat.  In  the  spring  the 
adult  fly  emerges  from  the  pupa,  lays  its  eggs  and  again  the  larvae  feed  upon  wheat 
stems.  Wheat  should  be  planted  as  late  as  possible  in  the  fall.  When  this  is  done 
the  adult  female  may  die  before  the  wheat  is  large  enough  to  receive  the  eggs. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  OCTOBER.—  (Note.  Two  lines  of  study  are  suggested  for 
the  month,  only  one  of  which  need  be  studied  in  any  one  school.  Each  school  should 
choose  the  line  of  work  best  fitted  to  the  locality.) 

1.  Special  study  of  corn;  its  culture  and  improvement.    Visit  fields  and  par- 
ticipate in  selection  of  desirable  stalks  and  ears.    Drying  and  storing  seed.    Experi- 
ments to  show  shrinkage  of  corn.    What  is  gained,  if  anything,  by  keeping  corn  over 
winter  to  sett.    Varieties  of  corn  grown  in  neighborhood;  history  of  two  or  three 
varieties.     Characteristics  of  a  good  ear;  simple  introduction  to  use  of  score  card. 
Factors  involved  in  marketing  corn. 

2.  Wheat.     Children  bring  samples  from  home;  examine  for  weed  seeds  and 
other  impurities.    Test  one  hundred  grains  of  each  sample  for  vitality.    Methods  of 
planting,  machinery  used  in  planting.    Observe  habits  of  groUvth  of  plants.    What 
parts  of  the  plants  live  over  winter.   History  of  wheat  varieties. 

CORN 

The  work  may  begin  with  an  informal  discussion  of  the  corn  crop  in  the  dis- 
trict. About  how  many  acres  of  corn  are  grown  upon  the  various  farms?  What  dif- 
ferent varieties  are  grown?  What  is  the  prevailing  variety?  Does  any  one  raise 
red,  calico,  or  other  varieties  than  white  and  yellow? 

Study  of  the  corn  plant.  (1)  Eoots. — Have  an  entire  plant  dug  up  and  brought 
into  the  schoolroom.  As  much  of  the  root  system  as  possible  should  be  preserved.  A 
fresh  green  plant  is  better  for  this  study  than  one  that  is  dry  and  mature.  The  pur- 
pose of  these  lessons  is  to  interest  the  children  in  the  characteristic  and  habits  of 
growth  of  corn. 

Notice  the  root  system.  How  many  kinds  of  roots?  Are  the  main  roots  large 
or  small?  These  are  known  as  fibrous  roots.  What  is  the  direction  of  growth?  Ask 


107 

the  children  to  dig  carefully  around  a  corn  plant  at  home  to  see  the  relation  of  the 
roots  to  the  soil.  How  near  the  surface  are  they  found?  How  deep  do  they  grow? 
How  far  out  from  the  hills?  How  far  between  the  rows'? 

Where  are  the  brace  roots?  How  many  joints  on  the  stem  produce  brace  roots? 
Have  children  observe  corn  at  home  and  report  on  the  greatest  number  of  brace 
roots  growing  upon  one  stalk.  Do  they  all  succeed  in  reaching  the  ground?  When 
do  the  brace  roots  begin  to  appear  on  the  corn?  Leave  this  as  a  problem  to  be  solved 
next  summer. 

(2)  Stem. — What  is  the  height  of  the  stem?     Have  children  report  on  various 
heights  of  stems  in  the  home  field.     What  is  a  good  average  height?     Note  that  the 
stem  is  built  up  of  sections  separated  from  each  other  by  joints.     We  call  these 
joints  nodes,  and  the  portion  of  the  stem  between  internodes.     How  many  internodes 
in  the  stalk?     Are  they  all  the  same  length?     Do  you  see  any  advantage  in  having 
the  nodes  close  together  near  the  base  of  the  stalk?     Does  this  make  the  stalk  any 
better  able  to  resist  the  force  of  the  wind.     Look  for  a  groove  on  one  side  of  the 
internode.     Is  it  on  the  same  side  of  all  the  internodes? 

With  a  sharp  knife  cut  a  stem  into  sections.  How  many  different  structures 
can  you  find  in  this  cross  section  of  the  stem?  (The  outside  layer  forms  the  woody 
part.)  Is  it  hard  or  soft?  (Inside  is  a  soft  pith  and  scattered  throughout  are 
thread-like  structures  called  fibro-vascular  bundles.)  These  bundles  are  really  little 
systems  of  canals,  which  carry  water  and  other  raw  materials  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves.  The  leaves  manufacture  these  raw  materials  into  food  and  the  canals  carry 
this  food  back  to  the  stem,  roots,  and  seeds,  wherever  it  is  needed. 

(3)  Leaves. — How  many  leaves  on  this  plant?     Does  the  number  differ  on  dif- 
ferent plants?     Have  the  children  report  on  this.     Do  the  leaves  differ  in  length? 
Where  are  the  longest  leaves?     How   are   the  leaves   fastened   to  the  stem?      (The 
part  that  surrounds  the  stem  is  called  the  sheath.)     Is  the  sheath  open  or  closed? 
Is  the  closed  or  open  side  next  to  the  groove  on  the  internode?     The  long,  slender 
part  of  the  leaf  is  called  the  blade.     Notice  how  it  arises  from  the  sheath.     What 
part  of  the  blade  is  longer,  the  middle  or  the  margin?     Can  you  see  any  advantage 
to  the  leaf  in  having  this  wavy  margin?     Would  it   tear   any  more  easily  in   the 
wind  if  it  were   straight?     Note  the  rain   guard,  a  thin  fringe  at  the  top   of  the 
hinge.      (Its  use  is  to  prevent  rain  from  pouring  down  between  the  sheath  and  the 
stem.)     Why  might  the  rain  here  be  a  disadvantage  to  the  plant? 

What  do  the  leaves  do  for  the  plant?  (Their  chief  work  is  to  manufacture 
starch,  proteid,  and  other  foods  for  the  plant  to  live  upon  while  it  is  growing  and 
to  store  up  in  the  seed  for  future  use.)  If  this  is  true  we  can  see  the  importance 
of  every  corn  plant  having  a  good  leaf  surface. 

(4)  Flowers  and  seed. — Has  the  corn  plant  any  flowers?     (Note  to  the  teacher: 
If  the  children  are  not  familiar  with 'the  parts  of  a  flower,  then  spend  one  lesson 
in  studying  some  familiar  flower,  as  the  nasturtium  or  petunia.)     Look  for  the  sepals 
that  form  the  calyx,  and  for  the  petals,  the  colored  part  of  the  flower.     Find  the 
stamens    with    the  filament     and    knob-like    anthers,    which    bear   the   pollen;    the 
pistil  with  the  roundish  ovary  at  the  base,  the  slender  style  and  the  stigma  at  the 
top   of  the   style.     The  corn   flowers  are  so   very  different   from   the   ordinary  ones 
that  we  do  not   usually  think   of  them  as  flowers  at  all.     But  while  they  have  no 
bright  petals,  they  have  the  stamens  and  the  pistils  which  are  the  essential  parts. 
In  fact,  every  corn  plant  has  two  kinds  of  flowers,  one  at  the  top  of  stalk,  which 
we  know  as  the  tassel.     The  other  is  often  called  the  shoot,  which  afterwards  be- 
comes the  ear.     E\ery  boy  and  girl  has  seen  the  yellow  powder  that  falls  in  showers 
from  the  corn  when  it  first  ' '  tassels  out. ' '     Look  at  the  tassel.     Note  that  it  is  made 
up  of  a  great  many  branches  on  which  are  small  parts  which  are  called  spikelets. 
Have  you  ever  noticed  little  bodies  dangling  from  the  spikelets  in  the  summer  time? 
They  are  the  stamens,  which  produce  the  pollen,  so  we  call  the  little  flowers  in  the 
tassel  staminato  flowers,  because  they  have  stamens  and  no  pistils.     The  "shoot" 
which  bears  the  pistils,  is  known  as  the  pistillate  flowers.     Try  to  find  a  very  young 
ear  and  bring  into  schoolroom  for  study.     Carefully  remove  the  husks.      Note  the 
rows  of  roundish  bodies  fastened  to  the  cob.     Note  that  a  silk  is  attached  to  each 
round  body.     The  round  body  is  the  ovary,  the  silk  is  the  style,  and  the  end  of  the 
silk  the  stigma. 

What  must  happen  in  order  that  a  grain  of  corn  be  formed?  (First  a  grain 
of  pollen  must  settle  on  the  end  of  the  silk.  We  call  this  process  pollination.  If 
the  pollen  comes  from  the  tassel  of  the  same  plant  we  say  the  flower  is  self- 
pollinated.  If  it  comes  from  another  plant  we  say  the  flower  is  cross  pollinated.) 


108 

Do  you  think  most  of  the  corn  in  the  field  is  cross-  or  self  -pollinated  ?  What  is  the 
chief  agent  that  carries  the  pollen  from  one  plant  to  another? 

Experiments  have  been  made  by  experts  which  prove  that  cross  pollination 
(other  conditions  remaining  the  same),  produces  better,  stronger,  more  productive 
corn  than  that  which  is  produced  by  self  pollination.  So  you  see  it  is  a  good  thing 
that  the  wind  scatters  the  pollen  all  over  the  field. 

What  happens  to  the  pollen  grain  when  it  falls  upon  the  end  of  the  silk?  It 
germinates  and  forms  a  slender  tube  which  grows  downward  through  the  entire  silk 
until  it  reaches  the  ovary.  This  tube  is  called  the  pollen  tube.  In  it  are  two  tiny 
cells,  so  small  that  you  would  have  to  have  a  microscope  of  very  high  power  in  order 
to  see  them.  When  the  cells  reach  the  ovary  it  is  ready  to  receive  them.  In  fact  it 
has  been  getting  ready  for  them  while  the  tube  has  been  growing  through  the  silk. 
In  it  are  two  important  cells  also.  One  of  these  is  called  the  egg  cell  and  the  other 
the  endosperm  cell.  One  of  the  cells  from  the  pollen  tube  unites  with  the  egg  cell 
to  form  a  new  cell,  which  has  the  power  of  growing  and  dividing  again  and  again 
until  it  forms  a  little  plantlet  which  we  call  the  germ,  or  embryo  part  of  the  corn  ker- 
nel. The  union  of  this  pollen  tube  cell  with  the  egg  cell  in  the  ovary  is  known  as  the 
process  of  fertilization  and  this  must  always  occur  before  the  embryo  can  be  formed. 
The  second  pollen  tube  cell  unites  with  the  endosperm  cell  of  the  ovary  and  the 
resulting  cell  grows  into  the  large  starchy  part  of  the  corn  kernel,  which  surrounds 
the  embryo  and  is  called  the  endosperm.  The  endosperm  part  of  a  corn  kernel  is 
simply  a  storehouse  of  food  placed  around  the  little  embryo  to  serve  it  with  nourish- 
ment while  it  is  developing  its  first  roots  and  leaves  and  getting  ready  to  manu- 
facture its  own  food.  It  is  because  of  the  fact  that  plants  in  this  and  similar 
ways  store  so  much  nourishment  in  their  seeds  to  nourish  the  little  embryos  which  are 
their  offspring,  that  seeds  are  so  valuable  as  food  for  man  and  animals. 

When  the  seed  germinates  and  grows  the  endosperm  is  destroyed  and  so  it 
only  lives  one  season,  but  the  embryo  grows  into  a  new  plant  the  next  year.  Just 
what  kind  of  a  plant  it  will  be  and  what  kind  of  corn  it  will  produce  depends 
largely  upon  the  kind  of  plant  which  produced  the  pollen  grain  and  the  ovary  cell 
that  united  to  form  the  beginning  of  the  seed.  You  can  easily  see  from  this  why 
the  characteristics  of  both  plants  are  so  important,  and  why  corn  breeders  who  raise 
corn,  especially  for  seed,  are  very  careful  to  have  both  the  pollen  and  the  shoot 
grown  upon  plants  that  have  the  very  highest  qualities. 

(5)  The  ear. — Where  is  the  ear  situated  on  the  stalk.  Is  it  on  the  grooved  or 
the  smooth  side  of  the  internode?  About  how  far  from  the  ground  is  it?  Do  ears 
on  different  stalks  differ  in  this  respect? 

Note  the  length  of  the  ear-stem  or  shank.  Can  you  see  any  disadvantage  in 
a  long  ear  shank?  (A  long  shank  usually  means  a  short  ear  and  indicates  poorly 
bred  corn.)  Is  there  any  disadvantage  in  a  very  short  shank?  Have  the  children 
notice  how  short-stemmed  ears  stand  almost  erect  and  thus  readily  catch  the  rain. 

To  continue  the  ear  study  ask  each  child  to  bring  at  least  two  ears  of  corn 
from  home.  If  the  teacher  can  procure  sample  ears  of  two  or  three  standard  varieties 
it  will  help  much  in  this  work.  How  many  rows  of  kernels  on  each  ear?  Is  the 
number  odd  or  even?  Are  they  the  same  on  all  ears?  How  many  kernels  in  one 
row?  How  many  on  one  ear?  How  can  you  determine  this  without  counting  all  of 
them?  If  you  disregard  the  small  kernels  at  the  tip  and  butt  how  many  kernels  on 
one  ear  may  be  used  as  seed  corn  next  spring? 

Selection  of  seed  corn. — Can  you  think  of  any  good  reason  for  choosing  seed 
corn  early  in  the  fall  from  the  field?  Let  us  see  what  some  of  the  reasons  are. 
Is  it  worth  while  to  consider  the  stalk  from  which  the  seed  corn  is  to  be  gathered? 
(If  a  stalk  is  weak  or  has  other  faults  seed  from  it  will  probably  produce  the  same 
bad  characteristics  in  the  stalk  next  year,  so  one  of  the  first  things  to  consider  in 
selecting  seed  is  a  desirable  stalk.)  Have  the  pupils  name  the  points  they  would 
like  reproduced  in  a  stalk  next  year.  The  following  are  points  that  should  be  con- 
sidered: (a)  The  stalk  should  be  erect,  strong,  well-formed,  i.e.,  thick  at  the 
base  and  gradually  tapering  toward  the  top.  (b)  It  should  have  well  developed 
brace  roots,  (c)  It  should  have  grown  in  a  hill  with  at  least  two  others.  Do  you  see 
why?  A  stalk  standing  by  itself  in  a  hill  might  produce  a  good  ear  because  it  had  so 
much  space  from  which  to  draw  food  materials.  What  we  want  is  a  stalk  that  is 
vigorous  enough  to  produce  a  good  ear  when  it  is  growing  in  a  hill  with  other 
stalks,  (d)  It  should  be  free  from  smut  and  suckers,  (e)  The  ear  should  be  situ- 
ated a  little  above  the  middle  point.  The  ear  stem  should  not  be  too  long  or  too 
short,  on  an  average  about  three  and  one-half  inches. 


109 

If  there  is  a  corn  field  near  the  school,  a  field  study  in  identifying  desirable 
stalks  makes  an  excellent  exercise.  The  work  may  be  carried  still  farther.  Choose 
a  plot  in  the  field  ten  hills  square.  Count  the  whole  number  of  stalks  in  the  plot, 
the  number  of  missing  stalks,  the  number  having  one  good  ear,  the  number  of 
barren  stalks,  the  number  having  suckers,  and  those  having  smut.  How  many  stalks 
have  two  good  ears?  How  many  ears  in  the  plot?  Estimate  the  number  of  bushels 
in  the  plot;  the  number  of  bushels  if  there  had  been  no  missing  stalks  or  ears. 

The  score  card. — For  the  desirable  points  in  the  ear  the  Illinois  Corn  Score 
Card  may  be  used.  This  may  be  obtained  by  applying  to  the  president  of  the 
Farmers'  Institute  of  your  county. 

The  value  of  the  score  card  in  the  hands  of  the  children  is  not  merely  that  they 
may  become  skilled  in  judging  samples  of  corn,  but  that  they  may  have  their  atten- 
tion called  to  the  essential  points  that  characterize  a  good  ear.  At  the  same  time 
this  exercise  is  of  considerable  educational  value.  The  pupils  make  accurate  ob- 
servations, compare  different  points  in  different  ears,  form  judgments,  and  act  upon 
those  judgments. 

Have  the  pupils  bring  at  least  five  ears  that  have  been  chosen  from  desirable 
stalks  at  home.  Select  from  these  ears  one  that  approaches  a  typical  ear  of 
the  variety.  Xow  place  all  the  rest  of  the  ears  side  by  side  with  the  butts  in  a 
straight  line  and  compare  them,  one  at  a  time,  with  the  typical  ear.  Group  together 
those  that  show  similar  characteristics.  This  will  help  the  pupils  to  understand 
what  is  meant  by  trueness  to  type,  which  is  indicated  by  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
ear,  the  shape  and  color  of  the  kernel. 

The  grouping  together  will  also  aid  the  pupils  to  see  what  is  meant  by  uni- 
formity of  exhibit.  If  the  pupils  were  preparing  a  sample  of  ten  ears  for  a  corn 
contest  they  should  place  together  ears  that  are  similar  in  external  characteristics. 

The  shape  of  the  ear  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  variety.  In  general  it  should 
be  cylindrical,  tapering  slightly  toward  the  tip.  The  rows  should  be  straight,  run- 
ning parallel  to  each  other,  not  twisting  to  the  right  or  left. 

The  color  of  the  ear  should  be  true  to  the  variety,  pure  white  or  yellow  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  kernels  should  be  free  from  mixture.  White  corn  should  have  white 
cobs,  and  yellow  corn  red  cobs. 

The  seed  condition  is  very  important.  The  ears  should  be  dry  and  sound. 
Take  the  ear  in  both  hands  and  twist  it  from  right  to  left.  If  it  is  soft  and  limp 
it  shows  lack  of  maturity  and  should  not  be  chosen  for  seed. 

The  tips  should  be  well-filled,  the  rows  of  kernels  extending  in  a  straight  line 
over  the  end.  There  should  not  be  a  piece  of  cob  exposed.  However,  if  the  ear 
has  other  good  qualities  judges  do  not  consider  a  tip  that  is  not  wholly  covered  a 
bad  fault. 

The  rows  should  extend  in  regular  order  over  the  butts,  leaving  just  space  enough 
for  the  attachment  of  the  ear  stem. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  kernels  in  all  of  the  ears  should  be  similar.  To 
examine  for  uniformity  of  kernels  remove  two  grains  from  about  the  middle  of 
each  ear  and  lay  them  in  front  of  each  ear  with  the  tips  pointing  towards  the  tips 
of  the  ears.  The  shape  of  the  kernels  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  variety.  In 
general  they  should  be  deep  and  wedge-shaped,  so  that  their  edges  will  touch  the 
entire  length  of  the  grain.  They  should  not  taper  at  the  tip,  but  should  have  plenty 
of  space  for  strong,  large  germs. 

The  length  of  the  ear  varies  with  the  variety.  In  an  exhibit  the  ears  should 
approach  uniformity  of  length.  The  circumference  also  varies  with  the  variety. 
In  general  the  circumference,  measured  three  inches  from  the  butt,  should  be  about 
three-fourths  of  the  length  of  the  ear. 

There  should  not  be  a  wide  space  between  the  rows  of  kernels,  neither  should 
there  be  a  space  between  the  tips  of  the  kernels  at  the  cob.  Both  of  these  indicate 
poorly  bred  corn  and  a  low  proportion  of  grain  to  ear. 

The  proportion  of  shelled  corn  to  ear  depends  upon  a  number  of  points  such 
as  well-filled  butts  and  tips,  spaces  between  the  rows  and  kernels,  the  size  and  depth 
of  the  kernels,  and  the  size  of  the  cob.  To  determine  the  proportion  by  weight, 
weigh  five  ears,  then  shell  the  grain  and  weigh  the  cobs;  subtract  the  weight  of  the 
cobs  from  the  weight  of  the  ears  to  determine  the  weight  of  grain.  Xow  determine 
what  per  cent  the  weight  of  the  grain  is  of  the  total  weight. 

Storing  seed  corn. — After  the  seed  corn  is  selected  comes  the  question  of  storing 
for  the  winter.  What  conditions  are  essential  for  the  keeping  of  seed  corn?  Three 


110 

at  least  should  be  considered.  First,  the  atmosphere  should  be  dry;  second,  the 
temperature  even,  and  third,  the  ventilation  good.  A  simple  method  is  to  tie  a 
number  of  ears  together  and  hang  them  up  in  some  convenient  place  such  as  the 
attic,  a  dry  shed,  or  an  unused  room.  Wire  used  to  support  the  strings  will  prevent 
injury  from  mice  and  rats.  A  simple  plan  suggested  by  the  College  of  Agriculture 
in  Ames,  Iowa,  is  known  as  the  double-cord  method.  Tie  the  ends  of  a  cord  to- 
gether. Now  hold  the  cord  over  the  hands  like  a  skein,  letting  the  middle  drop  to 
the  floor.  Let  someone  place  an  ear  of  corn  over  the  string  on  the  floor.  Now 
slip  the  cord  that  you  hold  in  your  right  hand  over  the  one  in  the  left,  letting  them 
cross  above  the  ear  of  corn.  Place  another  ear  of  corn  on  this  and  cross  the  cords 
again.  Continue  to  weave  back  and  forth  till  you  have  all  the  ears  in.  Then  slip 
one  cord  under  the  other  and  it  is  ready  to  hang  up. 

A  simple  experiment  may  be  tried  to  estimate  the  per  cent  of  shrinkage  of 
corn  that  is  kept  for  the  spring  or  summer  market.  Weigh  ten  ears,  hang  them  up 
in  the  school  room  or  at  home,  and  at  the  end  of  a  month  weigh  again.  Continue 
this  until  the  end  of  the  spring  term.  Estimate  each  month  the  per  cent  of  shrinkage. 

Uses  and  history  of  corn. — A  short  time  may  well  be  given  to  a  study  of  the 
uses  of  corn  and  something  of  its  history. 

Have  the  pupils  make  lists  of  all  the  uses  of  corn  that  they  know.  What 
parts  of  the  plants  are  used  to  feed  stock?  (The  grain  on  the  ear  shelled  or 
ground,  the  stem  and  leaves  in  fodder,  the  whole  plant  in  silage,  bran  and  corn- 
oil  cake?) 

Make  a  list  of  the  various  ways  in  which  corn  is  used  for  human  food.  (Corn- 
meal,  breakfast  food,  hominy,  corn  starch,  syrup  and  oil.) 

Corn  oil  is  also  manufactured  into  rubber  from  which  boots,  shoes,  linoleum 
and  oil  cloth  are  made.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  the  mixing 
of  paints.  The  cellulose  from  the  pith  of  the  stem  is  manufactured  into  an  almost 
impenetrable  substance  that  is  used  to  protect  warships  from  shot  and  shell.  The 
cobs,  and  even  the  stalks  are  largely  used  for  fuel  in  some  of  the  western  states. 

Have  the  children  start  a  collection  of  corn  products  for  the  school.  Wide- 
mouth  bottles  may  be  used.  Pickle  bottles  will  serve  very  well.  Place  samples  of 
the  various  products  in  the  bottles,  label  neatly  and  preserve  for  future  use.  A  corn 
chart  may  be  made  by  fastening  to  a  large  sheet  of  cardboard  various  corn  products. 

Many  school  readers  and  geographies  contain  interesting  articles  on  the  history 
of  maize  or  Indian  corn.  The  children  should  know  at  least  that  corn  was  found 
by  the  earliest  explorers  in  America.  The  Indians  had  attained  quite  a  degree  of 
efficiency  in  its  culture.  The  first  successful  attempt  to  cultivate  corn  in  America 
by  the  English  was  made  by  the  Jamestown  Colony  in  Virginia  in  1608.  Before  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century  corn  was  the  most  important  crop  raised  by  all  of 
the  colonies. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  were  probably  not  more 
than  five  varieties  of  corn  known.  Now  there  are  several  hundred,  all  produced  by 
careful  selection  and  breeding. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  know  that  from  a  botanist's  standpoint  there  are 
seven  species-groups  of  maize.  Four  of  these  are  grown  in  Illinois.  These  are: 
the  popcorns,  which  we  all  know;  the  flint  corn,  which  is  a  very  hard,  smooth- 
grained  variety,  that  is  grown  in  some  places  more  for  fodder  than  for  grain;  the 
sweet  corns,  which  are  used  so  largely  for  human  food;  and  the  dent  corns,  which 
constitute  all  the  varieties  of  common  field  corn  both  yellow  and  white.  This  group 
receives  its  names  from  the  dent  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  grain.  In  some  places 
popcorn  is  grown  chiefly  for  curiosity.  Each  grain  is  covered  with  a  husk.  This 
is  supposed  to  be  the  primitive  type  from  which  the  others  have  sprung. 

Plan  for  a  corn  display  and  program  on  Corn  Day.  If  any  member  of  the  school 
have  grown  corn,  have  a  corn  contest.  If  no  corn  has  been  grown  by  the  pupils, 
then  have  the  contest  consist  of  a  display  of  five  or  ten  ears  chosen  by  each  member 
of  the  class  to  show  his  skill  in  selecting  a  good  corn  sample. 

WHEAT 

LESSON  1. — The  first  lesson  in  the  wheat  should  consist  of  a  discussion  of 
wheat  as  a  farm  crop  in  neighborhood.  How  many  farmers  in  the  district  raise 
wheat?  What  kind  do  they  raise,  spring  or  fall  wheat?  About  what  time  is  it 
planted?  Discuss  different  methods  of  sowing  used  in  the  neighborhood,  also  differ- 
ent methods  used  in  the  preparation  of  seed  beds.  If  different  farmers  use  different 


Ill 

methods,  encourage  the  pupils  to  watch  for  results  in  order  to  determine  whether 
more  labor  expended  in  preparation  for  the  seed  bed  brings  a  better  yield.  If 
some  in  the  neighborhood  use  the  drill  and  others  sow  broadcast,  in  the  same  way, 
encourage  the  pupils  to  watch  for  results  and  decide  whether  one  method  is  better 
than  the  other  in  that  particular  locality.  How  deep  is  wheat  planted?  Is  there 
any  danger  of  planting  it  too  deep?  Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  small  samples  of  wheat 
from  home  for  study  the  next  day. 

LESSON  2. — Make  a  brief  study  of  grains  of  wheat,  noticing  the  covering  and 
the  difference  in  the  two  sides,  one  smooth  and  the  other  creased.  Compare  the 
grains  of  the  various  samples  brought  in  by  the  pupils  and  note  the  difference  in 
color,  size  and  plumpness  of  the  grains.  Now  test  for  purity.  This  is  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  wheat  seed  contains  other  things  than  pure  seed.  To  do  this 
spread  a  small  handful  of  the  grains  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper.  Now  separate  all 
the  weed  seeds,  chaff  and  other  foreign  objects  from  the  wheat.  When  this  is 
finished  put  the  wheat  seed  in  one  pile  and  the  foreign  matter  in  another  and  estimate 
about  what  per  cent  of  the  wheat  seed  is  pure.  This  may  be  used  as  a  good  per- 
centage problem  in  arithmetic  for  the  pupils.  If  the  school  has  a  pair  of  scales,  find 
the  weight  of  the  wheat  and  of  the  foreign  bodies  and  the  per  cent  may  be  found 
by  comparing  the  weights  of  the  two.  A  germination  test  should  be  made  to  de- 
termine whether  or  not  all  the  seeds  are  likely  to  grow.  To  make  this  test,  take 
one  hundred  grains  from  each  sample  of  wheat.  Place  some  moist  sand  or  soil  in 
a  dinner  plate;  a  box  or  pan  will  serve  as  well  as  a  plate.  Scatter  the  seeds  on  the 
surface  of  the  sand,  not  allowing  any  to  touch  each  other.  With  your  finger  gently 
press  each  grain,  so  that  it  will  rest  firmly  in  the  sand,  but  do  not  cover  it.  Turn 
another  plate  over  this  one  to  keep  the  moisture  in  it.  Set  it  away  in  a  warm  place. 
Watch  for  the  germination  of  the  seeds.  How  long  after  planting  before  the  first 
small  sprouts  appear?  Watch  them  from  day  to  day  until  you  are  certain  that  no 
more  grains  will  sprout.  By  counting  the  grains  that  have  not  sprouted,  you  will 
be  able  to  determine  at  once  the  per  cent  of  germination.  If  all  have  sprouted  but 
two  grains,  what  per  cent  of  germination  has  the  wheat?  If  not  more  than  sixty 
grains  sprouted  would  you  expect  a  good  stand  of  wheat? 

Observe  the  sprouting  grains  to  find  how  many  roots  grow  from  each.  From 
which  side  of  the  grain  does  the  sprout  come,  the  creased  side  or  the  smooth  side? 
A  few  grains  planted  in  a  pan  of  soil  at  this  time  arfd  kept  watered  will  be  of 
value  for  study  a  little  later  in  the  term. 

LESSON  3. — If  the  teacher  or  pupils  have  some  stems  of  wheat  with  the  heads 
on  them,  an  interesting  lesson  may  be  given  in  connection  with  the  forming  of  the 
grains  of  the  wheat.  Notice  the  head.  Is  it  one  piece  or  is  it  made  up  of  branches 
or  clusters?  This  kind  of  a  flower  cluster  is  called  a  spike.  The  small  side  branches 
are  spikelets.  How  many  spikelets  in  one  head?  How  many  divisions  in  one  spikelet? 
Each  division  or  part  of  a  spikelet  is  the  remains  of  a  little  flower.  Did  all  the 
flowers  succeed  in  producing  grains?  Count  the  grains  in  one  spikelet.  Compare 
different  kinds  of  wheat  in  this  respect.  Some  spikelets  bear  a  number  of  grains, 
others  have  but  three  and  some  one  and  two.  The  number  of  grains  in  a  spikelet 
has  much  to  do  with  the  yield  of  the  wheat.  The  spikelet  is  often  called  by  farmers 
a  mesh,  and  hence  farmers  speak  of  the  number  of  grains  in  a  mesh.  Here  is  another 
good  problem  in  arithmetic:  Since  you  have  counted  the  number  of  spikelets  in  a 
head  and  have  the  average  number  of  grains  in  a  spikelet,  how  many  grains  will  one 
head  produce?  Carefully  pull  to  pieces  what  is  left  of  the  little  flower  around  the 
grain.  Each  small,  leaf-like  body  is  called  a  glume.  Examine  the  one  nearest  to  the 
grain.  Is  there  anything  on  the  top  of  this?  Bearded  wheats  have  the  awn  or 
beard  fastened  to  this  glume.  Are  there  any  beardless  wheats  growing  in  the  neigh- 
borhood? Compare  all  the  different  kinds  of  wheat  that  the  pupils  may  bring  in 
with  reference  to  the  above  points. 

LESSON  4. — This  lesson  should  be  given  several  weeks  after  the  preceding  one. 
Study  the  plants  growing  in  the  schoolroom  and  note  the  following  points:  The 
height  of  the  shoot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Is  the  shoot  erect  or  not?  Dig 
some  of  the  plants  up  and  examine  the  root  system.  Where  are  the  main  roots  now? 
Do  they  seem  to  have  grown  from  the  three  small  ones  that  first  came  from  the  grain, 
or  farther  up  on  the  stalk?  How  long  are  the  roots?  How  do  they  compare  with 
the  length  of  the  shoot?  Have  the  pupils  make  similar  observation  of  the  wheat 
in  the  fields  at  home.  This  observation  should  be  made  at  intervals  of  a  week  or 
ten  days.  When  the  plants  are  six  weeks  or  more  old,  what  change  in  the  habit  of 
growth  of  the  stem  do  you  find?  (Instead  of  growing  erect  the  plants  now  spread 


112 

out  in  rosette  fashion  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.)  What  advantage  is  this  habit 
to  the  plant?  The  pupils  will  probably  suggest  that  it  helps  to  protect  them.  But 
does  it  protect  the  plant?  The  following  points,  at  least,  should  be  brought  out: 
Since  the  plant  is  low  on  the  ground  it  is  shielded  from  high,  cold  winds.  It  is 
easily  covered  with  nature's  covering — the  snow.  This  keeps  the  wheat  and  the 
soil  at  an  even  temperature,  preventing  the  thawing  and  freezing  which  is  so  dis- 
astrous to  the  wheat  plants. 

LESSON  5. — Discuss  the  different  varieties  of  wheat  that  the  pupils  may  know. 
It  is  possible  that  there  may  be  but  one  variety  in  the  neighborhood.  Some  winter 
wheats  are  known  as  hard  wheat,  some  semi-hard  and  others  soft.  Soft  wheats  are 
grown  largely  in  warmer  climates.  In  the  middle  west,  the  semi-hard  wheats  are 
the  ones  chiefly  grown.  Farthur  north  the  hard  wheats  are  gaining  favor.  Some 
wheats  are  classified  with  reference  to  the  beard.  Those  having  beards  are  known 
as  bearded  wheats,  and  those  without  beards  are  beardless  wheat.  How  are  new 
varieties  of  wheat  obtained?  There  are  two  ways.  Perhaps  some  of  the  boys  may 
have  noticed  in  walking  through  a  wheat  field,  that  here  and  there  a  few  heads  seem 
somewhat  different  from  the  rest  of  the  wheat  in  the  field.  Wheat  is  likely  to  have 
sports  or  variations.  That  is  the  reason  why  these  plants  may  differ  greatly  from 
all  the  rest,  though  grown  from  apparently  the  same  kind  of  seed.  Breeders  who  are 
anxious  to  obtain  a  new  variety  select  one  of  these  heads  that  seems  to  have  good 
characteristics.  They  save  the  seed  and  plant  them  in  a  small  plot  by  themselves. 
That  is  the  beginning.  If  the  plants  carry  out  the  good  characteristics,  the  seed 
from  this  small  plot  is  preserved  and  is  planted  on  a  larger  plot.  In  a  few  years 
the  breeders  have  enough  seed  to  plant  a  number  of  acres.  If  the  variety  proves 
valuable,  then  the  breeder  gives  it  a  new  name  and  so  has  produced  a  new  variety 
of  wheat.  This  is  called  the  selection  method  of  producing  new  varieties.  The  other 
method  is  by  a  cross  pollination.  Asfe  the  pupils  if  they  know  whether  wheat  cross 
pollinates  as  corn  does.  They  will  probably  know  that  two  varieties  may  be  planted 
side  by  side  with  little  crossing.  This  is  because  the  flower  of  the  wheat  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  pollen  does  not  escape  from  the  flower,  but  falls  upon  the  pistil  of 
the  same  flower.  For  this  reason,  when  breeders  wish  to  cross  pollinate  wheat,  it 
must  be  done  by  hand.  This  is  a  very  delicate  and  skilful  piece  of  work  and  is  car- 
ried on  by  experts.  It  is  enough  to  know  that  they  carefully  remove  the  stamens 
from  one  flower  and  place  on  the  pistil  of  that  flower  some  pollen  which  has  been 
taken  from  the  stamens  of  another  flower.  In  this  way  characteristics  from  the  two 
plants  are  mingled  in  the  new  seeds  that  are  formed. 

LESSON  6. — Discussion  of  the  uses  of  wheat  will  be  found  very  profitable  here. 
The  pupils  will  probably  know  most  of  the  uses,  the  most  important  one  being  the 
making  of  flour.  The  different  kinds  of  flour  may  be  named  and  from  the  geogra- 
phies the  chief  centers  in  which  flour  is  made  may  be  learned.  The  uses  of  wheat 
in  the  making  of  breakfast  foods  and  macaroni  may  be  presented.  The  uses  of  the 
straw  and  the  value  of  wheat  in  crop  rotation  should  be  discussed. 

FEUIT  TEEES 

While  Illinois  cannot  be  classed  as  a  fruit  growing  state  nevertheless  it  produces 
vast  quantities  of  fruit  each  year.  Almost  every  farmer  has  an  orchard  of  some  sort, 
Many  of  these  orchards  are  old  and  sadly  neglected,  scarcely  worthy  of  the  name. 
Many  farmers  feel  that  they  have  no  time  to  give  to  the  care  of  fruit  trees.  In 
many  cases  it  is  a  lack  of  interest  and  inclination  rather  than  time.  It  will  cer- 
tainly be  worth  while  from  an  economic  as  well  as  educative  and  aesthetic  stand- 
point, to  elicit  the  interest  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  fruit  trees  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

For  the  first  lesson  make  a  simple  survey  of  the  fruit  trees  of  the  district.  Ask 
the  children  to  report  the  next  day.  How  many  different  kinds  of  fruit  trees  on  the 
home  farm?  How  many  of  each  kind?  Where  are  the  trees?  Make  a  special  ob- 
servation of  the  apple  orchards.  Are  the  trees  old  or  young?  Find  out  if  you  can 
from  your  parents  how  old  the  orchard  is.  Look  carefully  at  the  trees.  Are  any 
of  them  broken?  Are  there  any  dead  branches  or  suckers  present?  Select  one  tree 
for  special  observation.  How  tall  is  it?  You  may  easily  estimate  the  height  of  the 
tree  by  measuring  your  own  height  upon  the  trunk  then  estimating  about  the  number 
of  times  the  tree  is  taller  than  you.  How  thick  is  the  trunk?  What  is  the  color  of 


113  v 

the  bark!  Is  it  rough  or  smooth?  Does  an  apple  tree  grow  symmetrically  or  does 
it  usually  have  a  gnarled  appearance?  If  there  are  apples  on  the  tree  notice  where 
they  are  borne.  Are  they  on  small  or  large  branches?  Are  any  of  them  at  the  tips 
of  the  twigs?  When  we  study  the  apple  flower  next  spring  we  shall  find  out  why 
apples  grow  as  they  do.  Bring  to  school  an  apple  twig  for  the  next  lesson. 

THE  TWIG. — Can  you  determine  how  many  years  growth  your  twig  represents? 
To  do  this  look  for  the  ring  scars.  Can  you  see  any  difference  between  the  old  and 
new  parts  of  the  twig,  as  to  color  or  smoothness  ?  How  are  the  leaves  arranged  on  the 
branches?  Do  you  find  any  that  are  clustered  as  well  as  those  that  are  arranged  singly 
on  the  twig?  Look  for  buds.  Where  are  they?  Are  they  single  or  clustered?  Are 
they  all  of  the  same -kind.  Do  you  know  what  the  buds  will  produce  in  the  spring? 

THE  APPLE. — The  apple  is  the  fruit  of  the  tree  and  a  most  interesting  fruit  it 
is.  Like  all  fruit  it  is  the  result  of  a  flower.  Eecall  how  the  apple  flower  looked  last 
spring.  You  will  probably  remember  that  there  was  a  cluster  of  pink  blossoms  at  the 
end  of  the  twig  surrounded  by  a  few  soft  green  leaves.  Is  there  a  cluster  of  apples  on 
the  tree?  Usually  but  one  flower  of  the  cluster  succeeds  in  producing  an  apple.  Once 
in  a  while  two  apples  develop  from  the  flower  cluster.  Examine  the  apples  to  de- 
termine the  external  features.  What  is  the  color  of  the  skin?  Is  it  thick  or  thin? 
It  will  be  of  interest  to  compare  different  varieties  of  apples  as  to  the  thickness  and 
toughness  of  the  skin.  This  is  an  item  of  some  importance  to  apple  growers  who 
ship  their  fruit.  Some  apples  are  so  thin  skinned  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  ship 
them  without  bruises.  What  is  the  use  of  the  skin  to  the  apple?  To  answer  this 
try  two  or  three  experiments.  Peel  one  apple,  stand  it  in  a  window  sill  or  some  other 
part  of  the  room  and  place  beside  it  an  apple  that  is  not  peeled.  Let  them  remain 
several  days  and  note  what  happens.  Bruise  an  apple  and  place  the  bruised  portion 
against  another  apple  and  note  what  takes  place. 

Notice  the  length  of  the  apple  stem.  That  of  course,  was  the  stem  of  the  flower. 
Notice  the  shape  of  the  apple  where  the  stem  is  fastened.  This  hollow  portion  around 
the  stem  is  called  the  cavity  of  the  apple.  What  do  you  find  at  the  other  end  of 
the  apple?  The  withered  bodies  are  the  remains  of  the  flower.  The  hollow  space 
in  this  end  of  the  apple  is  called  the  basin. 

Cut  the  apple  in  two  lengthwise.  Examine  the  inside  for  the  tough,  shiny  wall 
of  the  core.  Can  you  determine  the  number  of  seeds  in  one  cell  of  the  core?  Which 
way  is  the  pointed  end  of  the  seed,  toward  the  stem  or  the  basin?  Find  a  line  that 
extends  around  the  core  connecting  the  cavity  and  the  basin.  This  is  the  place 
where  the  calyx  cup,  the  outer  part  of  the  flower,  and  the  ovary,  the  lower  part  of 
the  pistil,  grew  together  in  developing  the  apple.  It  is  called  the  core  line.  Is  the 
core  line  equally  distinct  in  all  the  apples  you  have? 

Cut  an  apple  crosswise  through  the  middle.  You  can  now  see  the  star-shaped 
core.  How  many  points  has  the  star?  How  many  cells  in  the  core?  Can  you  trace 
the  core  line  in  the  cross  section?  Make  a  drawing  of  a  longitudinal  and  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  apple  labeling  all  the  parts. 

VARIETIES  OF  APPLES.— Have  the  pupils  bring  in  for  study  specimens 
of  different  varieties  of  apples.  Group  them  into  winter  and  fall  apples.  There  are 
probably  no  summer  apples  left  at  this  time.  What  is  the  most  striking  difference 
between  the  fall  and  winter  varieties?  The  fall  are  more  mellow;  they  are  almost 
ripe.  The  winter  apples  are  mature  but  will  ripen  later  in  the  season.  Apples  are 
mature  when  the  seeds  are  brown.  Have  the  children  make  lists  of  different  varieties 
of  apples,  grouping  them  according  to  the  time  they  mature,  as — Summer  apples; 
Duchess,  harvest,  early  June.  Fall  apples;  Grimes  golden,  snow,  russet,  Jonathan, 
maiden-blush,  wealthy.  Winter  apples;  northern  spy,  winesap,  gano,  willow- twig, 
salome,  wolf-river,  stark,  Ben  Davis. 

PICKING  AND  STOKING  APPLES.— Discuss  methods  of  picking  and  storing 
apples.  The  main  rule  to  follow  in  picking  apples  is  not  to  bruise  the  apple  or  break 
the  skin  if  you  expect  the  apples  to  keep  well.  This  means  that  they  must  be  hand- 
picked,  not  shaken  from  the  tree.  Do  you  find  all  the  apples  on  one  tree  equally  large 
and  brightly  colored?  Do  you  find  any  very  imperfect  apples?  In  what  way  are 
they  imperfect  I  Apples  with  warty  knots  have  been  affected  with  a  fungous  disease. 
Are  these  apples  as  large  as  the  others? 

Grade  your  apples  by  placing  together  the  finest,  the  next  best,  and  so  on. 
Firms  who  make  a  specialty  of  selling  apples  have  several  grades.  One  Chicago 


x  114 

firm  grades  as  follows:  Extra  fancy,  in  which  all  the  apples  are  perfect;  Fancy, 
in  which  they  are  nearly  perfect.  Choice,  all  good  fruit,  not  all  well  colored.  Num- 
ber two,  fruit  that  is  hand  picked  but  not  all  well  colored,  and  not  all  the  same  size, 
but  no  apple  must  be  less  than  two  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter.  Any  apple 
smaller  or  less  perfect  than  number  two  is  called  a  cull. 

How  are  apples  packed  for  market?  Some  are  packed  in  barrels  others  in  boxes. 
When  apples  are  properly  packed  they  will  lay  in  layers  and  there  will  be  no  large 
spaces  left  vacant.  The  apples  will  fit  closely  but  not  bruise  each  other.  Fancy 
apples  from  western  orchards  are  often  wrapped  singly  in  tissue  paper  just  as 
oranges  are. 

Where  and  how  are  the  home  apples  stored  for  the  winter.?  Discuss  with  the 
pupils  what  conditions  are  essential  in  order  that  the  apples  may  keep  well.  Three 
things  are  easily  remembered.  First,  temperature,  the  apples  should  be  kept  as  cool 
as  possible.  A  temperature  of  about  forty  degrees  is  considered  good.  Second,  ventila- 
tion; they  should  be  placed  in  a  room  where  there  is  plenty  of  fresh  air.  Third, 
moisture,  if  the  air  is  dry  the  apples  will  lose  their  freshness  by  evaporation. 

One  or  two  lessons  may  well  be  given  to  the  discussion  of  the  value  and  use  of 
apples  in  the  home.  If  time  permits  discussion  of  the  great  apple-growing  state 
will  be  worth  while. 

The  raising  and  planting  of  apple  trees  will  be  taken  up  for  discussion  in  the 
early  spring.  In  preparation  for  this,  if  there  is  a  nursery  in  the  vicinity,  have  the 
pupils  observe  something  of  the  wrork  of  the  nurseryman  during  the  fall  and  winter 
months.- 

NOVEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  NOVEMBER.— COEN  DAY.— Exhibit  of  corn  grown  by  boys. 

WEEDS. — Make  collection  of  seeds;  label.  Determine  whether  the  plants  are 
annuals.  Which  are  the  worst  seeds  in  grain  fields,  in  pasture,  meadow,  garden? 
What  is  the  secret  of  strength  or  success  in  each  Tcind?  Means  of  combating  each. 

Study  of  the  roads  of  the  vicinity;  types  of  road  materials  used  in  construction; 
road  drainage;  characteristics  of  a  good  road;  the  maintenance  of  roads;  the  drag; 
use  of  oil.  Significance  of  the  good  roads  movement. 

CORN  DAY. — Arrange  to  celebrate  corn  day,  which  occurs  the  first  Fri- 
day of  the  month.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  make  this  a  gala  day  in  which 
the  whole  community  is  interested.  A  program  should  be  arranged  and  the  patrons 
of  the  school  invited  in.  In  some  districts  it  may  be  advisable  to  have  the  meeting 
in  the  evening,  others  may  find  the  afternoon  more  convenient.  Plan  to  have  the 
class  bring  in  some  corn  for  display.  If  the  children  have  had  no  corn  plots  of  their 
own  from  which  to  choose  samples,  then  have  them  show  their  skill  in  selecting  ten 
good  ears  from  their  fathers'  cornfield.  The  program  should  in  part  indicate  the 
line  of  work  done  in  corn  study  during  the  preceding  month.  This  work  should 
furnish  material  for  some  interesting  papers.  The  following  subjects  are  suggested : 

How  a  grain  of  corn  is  formed. 

The  story  of  a  corn  plant  from  the  seed  until  it  is  matured. 

How  to  select  and  store  seed  corn. 

The  uses  of  corn. 

In  districts  w7here  apples  and  apple-trees  have  been  studied,  a  display  of  the 
apples  of  the  district  may  be  made  along  with  the  corn  exhibit. 

The  new  work  for  the  month  is  a  study  of  weeds  and  roads.  It  will  probably 
be  worth  while  in  all  parts  of  the  state  to  give  some  time  to  both  lines  of  work. 

Lesson  1.  Discuss  farm  activities  of  September  and  October,  consulting  the 
farm  calendar  for  the  first  two  months.  Plan  to  continue  the  calendar  for  November. 

WEEDS. — Weed  study  should  be  emphasized  in  the  fall  because  at  this  time 
the  plants  are  in  flower  and  fruit.  As  a  preliminary  lesson  ask  the  children  to  look 
in  their  gardens  to  see  how  many  different  kinds  of  weeds  are  growing  there  and  to 
bring  two  kinds  to  school  next  day.  Select  from  those  brought  in  one  for  a  type 
study.  The  following  outline  is  suggested :  Observe  the  height  of  the  weed,  the 
color  of  the  stem.  Break  the  stem  to  see  whether  or  not  it  contains  considerable 
liquid  or  juice.  Are  there  many  branches?  Are  the  leaves  large  or  small?  Are  they 
entire  or  divided?  Compare  the  leaves  on  different  parts  of  a  plant  with  each  other. 
Where  are  the  seeds  found?  Are  there  many  or  few?  Decide  how  to  estimate  the 
number  of  seeds  on  one  plant.  What  makes  this  a  successful  weed?  (Some  weeds 


115 

have  certain  characteristics  that  help  to  make  them  thrive  where  some  of  cultivated 
plants  would  die.)  For  example  the  juicy  stem  of  the  pigweed  or  purslane  with  long 
roots  enables  these  weeds  to  stand  the  drought  much  better  than  many  cultivated 
plants.  The  great  number  of  seeds  of  the  pig-weed  and  some  other  weeds  is  another 
characteristic  that  makes  them  successful. 

Having  finished  the  study  of  one  weed  according  to  the  above  outline  make 
comparative  studies  of  other  weeds  found  in  field,  roadside,  pasture  or  garden. 

Discuss  with  the  children  the  ways  in  which  weeds  injure  our  crops.  They 
crowd  the  cultivated  plants  and  prevent  their  getting  enough  light  and  heat.  They 
take  up  the  moisture  and  nourishment  from  the  ground  that  the  cultivated  crops 
may  need.  Some  weeds  make  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  disagreeable,  and  some 
weeds  are  injurious  when  mixed  with  hay  or  other  food  crops  because  they  are  not 
good  for  animals  that  feed  upon  them. 

Have  the  children  start  a  collection  of  weed  seeds.  There  are  several  ways  in 
which  these  may  be  preserved.  They  may  be  put  into  small  bottles  with  the  labels 
pasted  on  the  outside,  or  they  may  be  pasted  upon  cardboard.  It  will  be  worth 
while  in  arranging  the  collection  to  group  together  those  of  the  same  kind.  The 
value  is  not  so  much  in  the  collection  itself,  but  that  it  is  a  device  by  which  the 
pupils  become  better  acquainted  with  the  characteristics  of  the  weeds  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. At  the  same  time  it  adds  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  study. 

GOOD  EOADS. — The  study  of  public  highways  is  of  enough  importance  to  war- 
rant it  a  place  in  a  nature-study  program.  The  interest  in  good  roads  is  steadily  on 
the  increase.  There  is  little  question  that  more  time,  energy  and  money  have  been 
expended  in  genuine  effort  to  improve  the  roads  of  our  State  during  the  last  ten 
years  than  ever  before. 

To  arouse  the  interest  of  the  entire  community  in  a  movement  for  good  roads 
should  be  one  purpose  of  these  lessons.  The  first  lesson  may  be  a  simple!  discussion 
of  the  roads  in  the  neighborhood.  How  many  roads  in  the  district?  What  directions 
do  they  run?  Are  any  of  them  crooked?  How  did  the  roads  happen  to  be  placed 
where  they  are  now  found?  Tell  the  children  to  ask  about  this  at  home.  Perhaps 
someone  has  a  grandparent  who  can  tell  something  about  the  laying  out  of  roads 
years1  ago.  In  pioneer  days  of  Illinois  there  were  a  few  roads  which  connected  one 
settlement  with  another;  often  these  roads  were  mere  trails  across  the  prairie  and 
through  the  woods.  Have  the  children  try  to  picture  how  the  country  looked  in  those 
days.  In  the  woods  there  were  roads  winding  among  the  trees.  On  the  prairie  there 
were  great  stretches  of  grass  with  a  few  scattered  houses,  often  miles  apart.  There 
were  no  roads  laid  out  as  we  find  them  now,  but  instead  simple  wagon  tracks  leading 
across  the  plains  from  one  house  to  another. 

Some  of  the  old  trails  were  kept  as  roads.  This  was  especially  true  in  the 
wooded  tracts  where  the  first  trails  were  laid  out  along  lines  where  there  were  the 
fewest  difficulties  to  overcome.  Most  of  our  roads,  however,  have  been  placed  by 
law.  A  certain  number  of  feet  around  every  section  or  half-section  of  land  was  re- 
served for  roads.  When  a  certain  number  of  people  petitioned  to  have  the  road  put 
through  it  was  made. 

Have  the  children  report  upon  the  following:  How  far  apart  are  the  roads  in 
the  district?  How  wide  are  they?  Are  there  ditches  along  the  sides?  What  kind  of 
fences  along  the  roadside?  Is  there  grass  growing  between  the  fences  and  the  track? 
Are  there  any  weeds?  Any  wild  flowers? 

KINDS  OF  EOADS.— Are  the  roads  in  the  district  all  the  same  kind  as  to  the 
material  of  which  they  are  made?  What  are  the  different  kinds  of  roads?  We  have 
earth  roads,  macadam,  gravel,  oil  and  in  some  places  there  are  still  a  few  old- 
fashioned  plank  and  corduroy  roads. 

Earth  roads  are  the  most  common  in  some  parts  of  the  State.  However,  people  are 
becoming  much  interested  in  making  hard  roads,  either  macadam  or  gravel.  In  some 
places  crude  oil  is  coming  into  use.  It  is  usually  placed  on  a  smooth  gravel  or  sand 
foundation,  but  experiments  are  being  tried  to  test  its  efficiency  on  a  well-graded 
earth  road.  The  value  of  oil,  of  course,  is  to  make  a  road  better  able  to  shed  rain. 

MAKING  EOADS. — Discuss  with  the  children  how  roads  are  made.  Every  child 
should  realize  that  certain  fundamental  points  must  be  considered  in  building  a  road  of 
any  sort.  One  of  these  is  the  grade.  Look  at  the  roads  near  the  school  building.  Are  they 


116 

perfectly  level  from  one  side  to  another  ?  Where  are  they  highest  ?  Where  lowest  ?  The 
rounded  portion  of  a  well-graded  road  is  called  the  crown.  If  you  should  lay  a 
board  or  measuring  line  from  the  crown  of  the  road  out  to  the  edge  of  the  ditch, 
holding  it  perfectly  level,  how  many  inches  would  it  be  above  the  upper  edge  of  the 
ditch?  How  deep  is  the  ditch?  Then  how1  many  inches  is  it  from  the  highest  part 
of  the  road  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch?  Men  who  have  made  a  careful  study  of 
road  grades  in  Illinois  tell  us  that  the  crown  of  the  road  should  be  about  thirty 
inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch. 

DRAINAGE  OF  THE  ROADS. — Another  thing  to  consider  in  making  a  road  is 
drainage.  No  road  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  unless  it  is  well  drained.  Grading 
and  drainage  go  hand  in  hand.  In  most  places  the  ditch  along  the  side  of  the  road 
carries  off  the  water;  in  other  places  tile  is  used.  Which  is  used  in  your  district? 

HARD  ROADS. — If  there  are  hard  roads  in  the  district,  discuss  how  they  are  made. 
If  some  child  has  seen  a  hard  road  made,  let  him  tell  what  was  done  and  what  material 
was  used.  A  macadam  road  is  made  chiefly  of  crushed  rock.  It  receives  its  name  from 
a  man  named  Macadam,  who  made  the  first  roads  of  this  kind  in  England  a  number 
of  years  ago.  In  making  a  macadam  road,  the  first  step  is  to  grade,  arrange  for 
drainage,  and  shape  the  road.  The  next  step  is  to  spread  the  first  course  of  stone. 
This  stone  should  be  crushed  rather  fine,  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  width. 
It  should  be  spread  about  four  inches  thick.  The  third  step  is  to  spread  the  next 
layer  of  stone;  this  should  be  larger  pieces  of  stone,  about  three  inches  in  width, 
This  should  be  spread  six  inches  in  thickness.  After  this  has  been  done,  the  road  is 
ready  for  the  fine  stone  dust  or  screening.  This  fine  material  should  be  spread  so 
that  it  will  enter  all  the  spaces  among  the  broken  stone.  It  is  known  as  the  binder, 
for  it  binds  or  cements  the  stones  together,  making  an  even,  solid  surface. 

MAINTAINING  GOOD  ROADS. — How  are  the  roads  in  your  district  cared  for? 
Are  there  any  officers  whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  the  roads  are  kept  up  in  good 
condition?  In  all  of  the  counties  that  have  township  organizations,  there  are  three 
road  commissioners  who  have  charge  of  all  of  the  work,,  grading,  rolling,  dragging, 
etc. 

The  counties  that  have  no  township  organization  have  county  officers  that  look 
after  the  making  of  new  roads  and  maintaining  the  old  ones.  Besides  these  local 
officers,  there  is  a  State  Highway  Commission.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  commission 
to  send  speakers  to  meetings  of  various  kinds  in  order  to  interest  the  people  in  the 
improvement  of  the  roads,  to  give  information  along  lines  of  road  construction,  to 
print  bulletins  and  reports,  showing  what  has  been  done  in  some  places,  and  what  may 
be  accomplished  by  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  any  community. 

ROAD  TOOLS  AND  IMPLEMENTS. — What  tools  and  implements  are  used  in 
improving  the  roads  in  your  district?  Is  there  a  grader  in  the  district?  A  roller? 
A  road  drag?  When  is  the  work  with  the  grader  done?  In  many  places  the  roads 
are  graded  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall.  This  is  not  the  best  time;  it  should 
be  done  if  possible  in  the  spring.  Do  you  see  why?  The  purpose  of  using  the 
grader  is  not  merely  to  make  the  crown  of  the  road  higher,  but  to  help  the  soil 
compact  so  that  it  will  shed  water.  When  a  road  is  graded  in  the  summer  or  fall 
the  soil  is  usually  so  dry  that  a  loose  soil  mulch  is  made  that  readily  absorbs  the 
rain  instead  of  shedding  it. 

THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT. — Let  someone  describe  a  road 
drag  and  how  it  is  used.  The  bulletin  published  by  the  Highway  Commission  in  1908 
gives  some  excellent  rules  to  follow  in  dragging  a  road.  Some  of  them  are  as  fol- 
lows: The  drag  should  be  made  light,  not  heavy.  It  should  move  slowly  over  the 
road,  hence  the  team  should  be  driven  in  a  walk.  The  road  should  be  dragged  when 
it  is  muddy;  never  when  it  is  dry.  In  the  fall,  if  the  road  is  dragged  before  a 
freeze,  it  will  mean  a  good  road  most  of  the  winter.  Begin  at  one  side  of  the  road, 
returning  on  the  opposite  side.  Drag  a  little  earth  toward  the  center  of  the  road 
until  it  is  raised  ten  or  twelve  inches.  When  roads  are  first  dragged  after  a  muddy 
spell,  vehicles  should,  if  possible,  drive  to  one  side,  until  the  road  has  had  a  chance 
to  dry  out  a  little  or  freeze. 

THE  VALUE  OF  GOOD  ROADS. — One  or  two  lessons  should  be  given  to  the 
discussion  of  the  value  of  good  roads.  Have  the  children  make  a  list  of  all  the 


117 

benefits  farmers  derive  from  having  good  roads  the  year  around.  Do  not  let  them 
stop  with  the  mere  advantages  of  being  able  to  haul  their  produce  to  market,  but 
talk  also  about  the  opportunity  good  roads  afford  for  social  intercourse  and  for 
intellectual  advancement.  They  should  see  also  that  good  roads  are  almost  as  great 
a  benefit  to  the  people  of  the  towns  and  cities  as  they  are  to  the  country  people. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER. — Some  effects  of  heat  upon  bodies.  Simple  ex- 
periments to  show  effect  of  heating  a  solid,  a  liquid,  a  gas.  Some  practi-cal  applica- 
tion of  expansion,  of  vaporization. 

How  bodies  are  heated,  simple  experiment  to  show  conduction,  radiation,  con- 
vection. 

Heating  systems  of  home,  school,  church,  jacketed  stove,  hot  air  furnace,  sky 
studies,  movement  of  sun  and  moon. 

The  purpose  of  the  nature  study  lessons  this  month  is  to  interest  the  boys  and 
girls  in  some  of  the  physical  phenomena  that  touch  their  lives  upon  every  hand.  At 
the  same  time  the  work  will  lead  them  to  appreciate  something  of  the  wonderful 
laws  and  principles  that  we  are  constantly  putting  to  the  test  every  day  in  the  home 
and  school  as  well  as  in  the  shop  on  the  farm. 

A  few  simple  pieces  of  apparatus  are  necessary  for  the  work.  Most  of  these  may 
be  furnished  and  arranged  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Among  other  things  mentioned 
in  connection  with  the  experiments  a  small  alcohol  lamp  will  be  almost  indispensable. 

A  simple  lamp  may  be  made  as  follows:  Have  a  tinner  make  a  tube  about  one 
and  a  half  inches  long  and  solder  this  into  a  cover  that  fits  closely  a  vaseline  or 
or  other  good  size  bottle.  Procure  some  round  wicking  that  fits  the  tube  and  your 
lamp  is  ready.  Wood  alcohol,  which  is  less  expensive  than  the  grain  alcohol,  will 
serve  the  purpose  equally  well. 

HEAT — ITS  IMPORTANCE. — The  first  lesson  may  be  an  informal  discussion 
of  the  importance  of  heat  to  us.  Lead  the  children  to  talk  about  how  dependent 
we  are  upon  heat  both  that  of  the  sun  and  artificial  heat.  Make  the  heating  plant 
of  the  school  room,  whether  a  stove  or  furnace,  the  center  around  which  to  group 
the  experiments  and  observations. 

The  first  general  problem  is:  How  is  our  school  room  heated?  First,  examine 
the  heating  plant  itself.  If  it  is  a  stove  find  the  essential  parts  and  name  them. 
These  are  the  fire  bowl,  feed  door,  draft,  pipe,  check-draft,  ash  pan  and  a  jacket  if 
the  stove  is  of  the  modern  kind.  The  parts  of  a  furnace  are  almost  similar  to  those 
of  the  stove  with  the  addition  of  the  pipes  and  registers.  While  all  of  these  parts 
are  familiar  to  the  children,  the  natural  laws  that  have  been  considered  in  the  making 
and  setting  up  of  a  stove  or  furnace  have  probably  never  occurred  to  them. 

Procure  several  small  downy  feathers.  Hold  one  of  these  a  short  distance  above 
the  stove.  Let  it  go  and  note  what  happens.  Why  does  the  feather  move  upward? 
Now  hold  the  feather  at  the  side  of  the  stove  and  watch  the  movement.  Place  it 
near  the  draft  in  front  of  the  feed  door.  If  the  room  is  heated  by  a  furnace  watch 
the  movement  of  the  feather  when  held  near  and  above  the  register.  The  children 
may  answer  in  part  the  question  of  what  causes  the  movements.  Tell  them,  however, 
that  we  shall  try  to  answer  the  question  more  fully  by  some  simple  experiment. 

Have  some  child  bring  a  large  iron  nail  or  rod  of  iron.  Measure  the  length  of 
the  nail  or  rod  in  the  following  manner:  Lay  the  nail  upon  a  piece  of  pine  board 
and  make  a  scratch  in  the  board  at  each  end  of  the  nail.  Heat  the  nail  very  hot 
by  placing  it  on  top  of  a  glowing  bed  of  coals  in  the  stove.  While  still  hot,  try  to 
place  it  between  the  scratches  on  the  board.  What  effect  has  the  heat  had  upon  it? 
The  children  will  readily  see  that  it  is  a  little  longer  than  before  it  was  heated.  If 
they  do  not  know  the  word  ' '  expand ' '  this  is  a  good  time  to  give  it  to  them. 

Place  the  nail  out  of  doors  until  it  has  cooled.  Try  again  placing  it  between 
the  scratches.  What  is  the  effect  of  cooling  it?  Have  the  children  try  to  think  of 
other  solids  that  are  affected  by  .heat  in  the  same  way.  Have  them  name  some  prac- 
ticable applications  of  the  fact  that  solids  expand  when  heated  and  contract  when 
cooled.  (The  placing  of  tires  on  a  wheel,  heating  bolts  and  tightening  burs  as  the 
bolts  cool,  heating  the  top  of  a  fruit  jar  to  remove  lid.) 

Let  us  try  an  experiment  to  see  whether  heat  effects  liquids  as  it  does  solids. 
Fill  a  tin  cup  level  full  of  water,  heat  it  slowly.  What  happens?  Put  a  piece  of 


118 

glass  tubing  about  eight  inches  long  through  a  rubber  stopper,  cork  will  serve  equally 
well  if  it  is  not  too  porous.  Fill  a  glass  flask  full  of  water,  and  put  in  the  stopper. 
The  water  should  now  show  in  the  tube  just  above  the  stopper.  Slowly  heat  the  flask, 
What  indication  have  you  that  water  expands  when  heated?  When  the  wrater  has 
risen  almost  to  the  top  of  the  tube  set  the  flask  in  a  cool  place.  Does  the  water 
contract?  Can  you  think  of  an  important  application  of  the  fact  that  liquids  expand 
when  heated  and  contract  when  cooled?  - 

THE  THERMOMETEE. — If  you  have  a  thermometer  in  the  school  room  this  is 
a  good  time  to  explain  how  it  is  possible  to  measure  temperature  by  this  simple  in- 
strument. What  is  in  the  tube  of  the  thermometer?  Is  mercury  a  liquid  or  a  solid? 
( Mercury  is  a  very  heavy  liquid. )  Place  your  finger  upon  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer. 
Why  does  the  mercury  rise  in  the  tube?  Why  does  the  mercury  go  down  when  you 
place  the  thermometer  out  of  doors  on  a  cold  day?  The  children  will  readily  see 
that  just  as  the  water  expanded  with  the  heat  the  mercury  expands  and  rises  in  the 
tube.  It  contracts  with  the  cold.  Because  of  this  expansion  and  contraction,  we  may 
use  it  to  measure  temperature. 

We  have  now  found  that  heat  expands  both  solids  and  liquids.  Air  is  neither 
a  solid  nor  a  liquid,  but  is  made  up  of  several  invisible  gases.  Let  us  try  an  ex- 
periment and  see  whether  or  not  gases  expand  when  heated.  Use  the  same  flask  as 
in  the  preciding  experiment.  Pour  out  the  water  and  dry  the  flask  thoroughly.  What 
is  now  in  the  flask?  The  children  may  not  at  first  realize  that  the  flask  is  not  empty 
but  full  of  air.  Insert  the  stopper  as  before,  but  place  over  the  end  of  the  glass 
tube  a  rubber  tube  at  least  a  foot  long.  Hold  the  end  of  the  rubber  tube  under 
water.  Now  slowly  heat  the  flask.  What  happens?  (As  you  heat  the  air  in  the 
flask  it  expands  and  flows  out  through  the  rubber  tube  as  indicated  by  the  bubbles 
in  the  water.) 

If  the  children  are  eager  to  know  what  happens  when  a  body  expands  there  is 
perhaps  no  better  time  to  give  them  the  simple  fact  that  all  bodies  are  made  up 
of  very  small  parts  wThich  are  invisible  even  with  the  most  powerful  microscope. 
These  are  called  molecules.  When  a  body  is  heated  the  molecules  probably  move 
farther  apart  leaving  spaces  between  them,  thus  the  whole  body  occupies  a  larger 
space. 

We  are  ready  now  to  try  another  experiment  with  liquids  and  gases.  Fill  a 
tumbler  two-thirds  full  of  very  cold  water.  Heat  some  water  almost  to  the  boiling 
point  and  color  it  with  a  few  drops  of  red  or  black  ink.  Make  a  paper  tube  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  by  rolling  up  a  sheet  of  paper.  Hold  this  tube  in  the  middle 
of  the  glass  of  cold  water  with  the  end  on  the  bottom  of  the  glass.  Now  pour  some 
of  the  warm  colored  water  into  the  tube.  Watch  it  as  it  begins  to  come  out  at  the 
bottom.  Slowly  lift  the  tube.  Why  does  the  colored  water  come  to  the  top  of  the 
glass?  The  teacher  can  perhaps  lead  the  children  to  see  why,  by  asking  them  another 
question.  Why  does  a  piece  of  cork  come  to  the  top  of  a  glass  of  water?  Which 
is  heavier,  the  cork  or  the  water?  In  the  same  way  that  cork  floats  upon  water,  the 
warm  water  floats  on  the  top  of  cold  water.  Or  we  may  say  that  the  cold  water 
holds  up  or  even  pushes  up  the  lighter  water.  We  shall  try  another  experiment  to 
show  this  more  clearly. 

Fill  the  flask  about  half  full  of  water.  Place  a  little  chalk  dust  in  the  water. 
Hold  the  flask  so  that  it  is  heated  more  at  one  side  than  at  the  other.  Now  watch 
carefully  for  movements  of  the  water.  If  the  experiment  works  properly  the  children 
will  be  able  to  see  a  current  of  water  moving  in  the  flask.  The  water  that  is  first 
heated  near  the  bottom  of  the  flask  expands  and  becomes  lighter.  The  colder  water 
rushes  in  and  pushes  the  lighter  water  upward.  This  movement  of  the  water  caused 
by  the  heat  is  called  a  convection  current. 

Light  an  ordinary  kerosene  lamp.  Hold  a  smoking  match  or  splinter  below  the 
burner  at  one  side.  What  happens?  Why  does  the  smoke  move  inward  toward  the 
burner?  Hold  a  feather  or  bit  of  paper  above  the  lamp  chimney.  What  is  the  move- 
ment at  this  point?  This  simply  shows  the  convection  currents  of  air  around  a  burn- 
ing lamp.  Have  the  children  explain  the  movements  of  the  air.  (The  air  within  the 
chimney  becomes  heated  and  expands.  It  is  lighter  than  the  air  on  the  outside. 
Hence  the  cold  air  rushes  in  and  forces  the  warm  light  air  upwrard.) 

We  are  now  ready  to  return  to  our  question  concerning  the  stove  or  furnace. 
It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  repeat  the  experiment  with  the  feathers.  Why  does 
the  air  move  upward  above  the  stove?  By  means  of  feathers  or  a  burning  candle 
trace  convection  currents  in  different  parts  of  the  school  room.  What  makes  the  air 


119 

that  is  in  the  jacket  around  a  furnace  come  up  into  the  room  through  the  register? 
The  children  will  readily  see  that  the  fresh  air  coming  in  below  pushes  the  light 
warm  air  upward  through  the  pipes  into  the  room. 

A  JACKETED  STOVE. — If  the  stove  is  jacketed  have  the  children  trace  the 
air  by  means  of  light  feathers  on  the  end  of  a  stick  from  the  jackets  to  various  parts 
of  the  room  and  back  toward  the  stove  or  duct  for  the  exit  of  impure  air. 

Why  is  the  jacket  stove  in  one  corner  of  the  room  better  than  an  un jacketed 
one  standing  in  the  middle  of  the  room?  This  question,  too,  we  must  answer  by 
means  of  experiments.  Place  an  iron  poker  in  the  stove  and  heat  the  end  of  it  very 
hot.  Take  it  out  and  hold  your  hand  a  short  distance  above  the  heated  end.  Can 
you  feel  heat  coming  from  it?  Hold  your  hand  at  the  sides  and  below.  Can  you 
feel  the  heat  coming  from  it  at  all  directions  ?  This  kind  of  heat  is  known  as  radiant 
heat.  It  is  the  heat  that  streams  in  straight  lines  from  any  heated  body.  It  does 
not  need  air  to  travel  through.  It  is  the  kind  of  heat  that  we  get  from  the  sun. 
Hold  your  hand  near  the  stove  on  every  side.  Is  the  stove  radiating  heat!  If  you 
place  a  chair  near  a  stove  after  a  time  it  becomes  hot.  How  was  it  heated?  (It 
was  heated  chiefly  by  radiant  heat  from  the  stove.)  Where  shall  we  place  objects 
with  reference  to  the  stove  in  order  that  they  may  receive  the  greatest  amount  of 
radiant  heat?  What  part  of  the  school  room  will  be  kept  hottest  by  an  unjacketed 
stove?  What  will  be  true  of  the  parts  of  the  room  that  are  at  some  distance  from 
the  stove?  Wlien  you  put  a  jacket  around  the  stove,  what  is  most  of  the  radiant 
heat  from  the  stove  doing?  (It  is  heating  the  air  that  is  confined  between  the  stove 
and  the  jacket.  From  our  study  of  convection  currents  we  know  that  the  heated  air 
is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  room  so  the  school  room  is  heated  equally  in  all  parts.) 

All  the  facts  that  have  been  brought  out  in  connection  with  the  jacketed  stove 
apply  also  to  the  hot  air  furnace.  The  only  difference  is  that  in  connection  with 
the  furnace  there  are  pipes  to  convey  the  heated  air  into  the  room. 

Can  you  think  of  something  else  that  we  should  consider  in  connection  with  the 
stove  and  the  furnace  in  heating  a  room?  Is  there  any  way  provided  by  which  fresh 
air  may  enter  the  jacket  of  the  stove  or  furnace?  Why  is  it  important  that  the  air 
in  the  jacket  be  kept  pure?  Since  this  is  the  air  that  is  carried  to  all  parts  of  the 
room,  it  is  the  air  that  we  must  breathe.  If  this  is  kept  pure  then  the  ventilation 
of  the  room  will  always  be  good. 

There  is  still  something  else  that  we  need  to  know  about  the  hearing  of  bodies. 
Put  the  end  of  an  iron  poker  into  the  bed  of  burning  coals  or  hold  the  end  of  a 
nail  in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp.  Allow  it  to  remain  several  minutes.  Is  it  hot 
at  any  point  except  where  it  is  surrounded  by  the  fire?  How  far  from  this  point 
can  you  detect  heat  by  touching  it?  What  then  must  have  taken  place  in  the  piece 
of  iron?  (The  heat  must  have  traveled  slowly  from  the  part  that  was  in  the  fire 
to  the  other  parts.  When  heat  travels  from  one  particle  of  a  body  to  another  in 
this  way  we  say  that  the  body  is  heated  by  conduction.)  How  is  a  flat  iron  heated? 
The  handle  of  a  frying  pan  or  stew  pan? 

It  will  be  interesting  to  make  a  test  of  the  conductive  power  of  different  kinds 
of  material.  Place  a  small  stick  of  wood  in  the  fire  just  as  you  did  the  poker.  What 
happens?  How  far  from  the  end  of  the  stick  can  you  detect  heat?  Which  is  the 
better  conductor  of  heat,  iron  or  wood?  Why  are  wooden  handles  placed  on  iron 
and  steel  cooking  utensils?  Place  your  hand  on  the  window  pane,  then  on  the  wood 
of  the  window  sash.  Which  feels  colder?  Since  the  glass  and  the  wood  are  side  by 
side  they  are  at  the  same  temperature.  The  glass  feels  colder  because  it  conducts 
heat  from  your  hand  so  rapidly.  Why  are  woolen  clothes  warmer  than  cotton?  (They 
are  warmer  because  they  are  poor  conductors  of  heat  and  hence  keep  in  the  heat  of 
the  body.)  Make  a  list  of  good  conductors  of  heat  and  poor  conductors.  Many 
solids  are  good  conductors  of  heat  but  liquids  and  gases  are  very  poor  conductors. 
Air  is  one  of  the  poorest  conductors  known.  It  is  the  air  among  the  hairs  that  makes 
a  fur  coat  or  collar  so  warm. 

Is  conduction  used  in  any  way  in  the  heating  of  the  school  room?  How  is  the 
stove  itself  heated?  The  children  will  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  the  iron 
which  is  contact  with  the  heated  fuel  is  heated  largely  by  conduction.  Have  the 
children  summarize  all  the  points  in  the  heating  of  a  room  by  a  stove  or  by  a  furnace. 
This  may  be  put  in  a  form  of  a  story  and  used  as  a  composition  in  correlation  with 
the  grammar. 

Spend  two  or  three  lessons  in  discussing  how  the  various  homes  of  the  children 
are  heated  and  ventilated.  Encourage  the  children  to  try  simple  experiments  in  de- 


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tecting  convection  currents  about  the  home  and  in  finding  examples  of  radiation  and 
conduction.  Discuss  also  how  the  churches  and  other  buildings  of  the  community  are 
heated  and  ventilated. 

It  will  perhaps  be  worth  while,  if  time  permits,  to  study  the  effect  of  heat  in 
changing  substances  from  one  state  into  another.  Procure  a  cake  of  paraffin,  tallow 
will  serve  as  well.  This  is  in  what  form,  liquid,  or  gas?  How  may  we  change 
it  into  a  liquid?  Place  a  part  of  it  in  a  cup  or  pan  and  heat  until  it  becomes  a 
liquid.  Put  a  portion  not  more  than  a  teaspoonful  on  some  live  coals.  What  hap- 
pens? A  black  smoke  arises.  This  is  the  paraffin  changed  into  vapor.  We  see  then, 
that  heat  changes  the  solid  paraffin  first  into  a  liquid  and  if  more  heat  is  applied 
into  a  gas  or  vapor.  Show  by  a  simple  experiment  that  water  may  be  changed  into 
vapor  by  heat. 

What  happens  when  a  liquid  changes  back  into  a  solid?  To  answer  this,  fill  a 
cup  level  full  of  melted  paraffin  and  set  in  a  cool  place  until  the  next  day.  What 
has  happened?  (The  paraffin  contracts  or  shrinks  as  it  cools  which  accounts  for  the 
sunken  place  in  the  top  of  the  paraffin.)  Most  other  substances  act  the  same,  that 
is,  they  contract  as  they  solidify.  While  this  is  true  of  most  substances  there  is  one 
important  exception  and  that  is  water.  If  the  weather  is  freezing  cold,  fill  a  tin 
cup  level  full  of  water,  set  it  in  a  saucer  or  pan  and  place  out  of  doors.  Bring  in 
the  next  morning.  Did  the  water  contract  or  expand  as  it  cooled  and  solidified? 
(It  is  very  easy  to  see  that  the  water  expanded.)  Have  the  children  give  some  ex- 
amples to  show  that  water  expands  when  freezing.  (The  breaking  of  a  pitcher  or 
glass.)  Which  is  heavier  ice  or  water?  To  answer  this  put  a  piece  of  ice  into  a  cup 
of  water.  Does  it  sink  or  float?  Since  ice  is  lighter  than  water  this  is  another  evi- 
dence that  it  expands  as  it  solidifies. 

The  last  experiment  showed  us  that  water  expands  when  it  freezes.  One  of  our 
first  experiments  showed  that  water  expanded  when  heated.  Since  this  is  true  there 
must  be  a  certain  temperature  at  which  water  reaches  its  greatest  weight  or  density. 
This  temperature  is  39.2°  Fahrenheit.  If  we  heat  water  above  39.2°  it  expands.  If 
it  is  cooled  below  this  temperature  it  expands  also.  If  you  have  a  cupful  of  water 
whose  temperature  was  80°  Fahrenheit  and  you  heat  it  will  it  expand  or  contract? 
(It  will  expand  until  it  reach  the  boiling  point.)  What  if  you  should  cool  the 
same  cupful  of  water?  Would  it  contract  or  expand?  (It  would  contract  until  it 
reached  39.2°  when  it  would  begin  to  expand  and  continue  to  expand  until  frozen.) 

Summarize  all  the  effects  of  heat  upon  bodies  giving  illustrations  of  each.  If 
time  permits  give  one  lesson  to  the  discussion  of  how  the  earth  and  air  are  heated. 
The  earth  absorbs  the  radiant  heat  from  the  sun.  The  hotter  the  day  the  more  heat 
is  absorbed.  At  night  the  earth  radiates  some  of  its  heat,  the  heat  goes  into  the 
air.  The  air  receives  more  heat  from  the  radiation  of  the  heat  from  the  earth  than 
it  does  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

SKY  STUDIES. — Of  all  the  objects  in  nature  none  are  so  constant  as  the  sun, 
moon  and  the  stars.  With  a  little  direction  children  may  be  led  to  recognize  a  few 
stars  and  constellations  as  well  as  the  movements  and  phases  of  the  moon.  Perhaps 
no  other  field  of  observation  will  yield  greater  returns  in  pleasure  and  satisfaction  to 
the  children,  not  only  while  they  are  in  school  but  when  they  have  grown  to  manhood 
and  womanhood. 

Keep  a  simple  record  of  the  time  of  sunrise,  sunset,  the  position  of  the  sun  in 
the  morning,  at  noon,  in  the  evening.  Are  there  any  changes  in  position?  This  work 
will  mean  more  to  the  children  if  it  can  be  continued  for  several  months.  A  few 
minutes  may  be  taken  for  reports,  one  in  two  weeks. 

Have  children  observe  the  moon  during  an  entire  month.  Begin  with  the  new 
moon.  Have  them  keep  a  simple  record  of  its  position  in  the  sky,  the  time  of  day 
observed,  and  its  shape.  At  the  time  when  the  moon  is  about  full  and  for  two  or 
three  days  afterwards,  keep  a  record  of  the  time  that  it  rises.  At  the  end  of  the 
month,  spend  one  or  two  lessons  comparing  the  records  of  the  children  and  getting 
the  facts  concerning  the  different  phases  of  the  moon.  An  almanac  will  be  helpful 
here. 

For  a  study  of  the  stars,  the  Big  Dipper  makes  a  good  starting  point.  Have  the 
children  find  the  Big  Dipper.  Where  is  it?  In  the  North,  East,  South  or  West? 
Count  the  number  of  stars  in  it.  How  many  in  the  bowl?  How  many  in  the  handle? 
Is  the  handle  straight  or  crooked?  By  means  of  the  dipper  the  children  may  be 
directed  how  to  find  the  North  Star.  To  do  this  tell  the  children  to  find  the  two 
outside  stars  in  the  bowl.  If  they  could  draw  a  line  straight  out  from  the  upper 


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star  and  in  line  with  these  two,  it  would  touch  a  rather  pale,  bright  star,  which  is 
the  North  Star.  This  is  also  called  the  pole  star.  Watch  the  dipper  a  number  of 
nights  to  discover  whether  it  is  always  in  the  same  position  with  reference  to  the 
North  Star.  Look  at  it  at  different  times  the  same  night,  early  in  the  evening  and 
just  before  going  to  bed.  What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  whether  the  dipper  moves 
around  the  pole  star?  (The  dipper  apparently  moves  around  the  North  Star  once 
every  twenty-four  hours.) 

See  if  you  can  find  a  smaller  dipper  nearer  the  north  pole.  The  bowl  is  almost 
a  rectangle  like  the  side  of  a  box.  The  handle  has  three  stars  but  the  third  star  and 
the  end  of  the  handle  is  the  North  Star  itself.  Watch  for  movements  of  this  as 
you  did  of  the  Big  Dipper. 

Another  interesting  group  of  stars  that  is  easily  found  during  the  winter  months 
is  Orion.  This  is  found  toward  the  southern  half  of  the  heaven  at  this  time  of  year. 
There  are  three  bright  stars  in  a  row.  These  three  stars  are  known  as  Orion's  belt. 
Grouped  around  the  belt  are  four  other  large  stars  and  near  the  belt  a  line  of  rather 
small  stars  ascending  downward.  Another  constellation  is  the  small  group  of  stars 
very  close  together  and  which  seem  to  have  a  mist  around  them.  This  is  known  as 
the  Pleiades.  How  many  stars  can  you  find  in  the  group?  Six  are  plainly  seen. 
There  are,  however,  about  three  thousand  in  it  that  we  can  not  see. 

Starland  by  Ball,  or  the  Storyland  of  Stars  by  Pratt  are  helpful  books  for  this 
study. 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOE  JANUAEY. — Begin  weather  record,  noting  wind  direction, 
cloudiness,  temperature,  rainfall.  Effect  of  weather  upon  plants,  upon  winter  wheat, 
upon  a7iimals.  Work  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 

Composition  of  air;  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon-dioxide,  water-vapor.  Demonstra- 
tions ~by  teachers.  Ventilation  of  home,  school,  church. 

The  common  lift  or  suction  pump;  study  of  pressure  in  liquids  and  gases,  de- 
veloping interpretation  of  pump  and  barometer,  and  constructing  eaeh,  using  gas  tub- 
ing or  lamp  chimney  with  cork  and  leather  valve.  The  force  pump.  Interpretation  of 
the  weather  map. 

LESSON  PLANS.— Weather.  Keep  the  weather  record  and  note  the  effects  of 
weather  on  life  as  suggested  for  the  sixth  grade  in  December.  Send  to  the  Weather 
Bureau  Station  at  Springfield  and  ask  to  have  the  daily  weather  map  sent  to  your 
address.  Preserve  the  maps  for  study  later  in  the  month.  Look  up,  in  the  geography 
or  some  other  source,  the  history  and  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  month  have  the  pupils  make  a  short  summary  based  upon 
their  observations.  How  many  fair  days  their  weather  record  show?  How  many 
cloudy?  How  many  in  which  there  was  precipitation?  What  was  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  for  the  month?  What  was  the  direction  of  the  wind  when  the 
temperature  was  lowest?  When  the  temperature  was  highest?  From  what  direction 
did  the  rain  or  snow  come?  What  was  the  direction  of  the  wind  during  the  cloudy 
weather  ? 

Study  the  weather  maps.  Point  all  the  different  things  that  you  find  on  one 
map.  Eead  the  explanatory  note  in  the  corner.  Do  you  find  the  words  high  and  low? 
What  do  they  mean?  A  low  means  a  region  in  which  the  air  pressure  is  light  or 
in  which  the  barometer  stands  low.  High  means  a  region  of  high  pressure.  Look 
at  the  arrows  in  the  vicinity  of  low.  Are  most  of  them  moving  towards  the  center 
of  the  low,  or  away  from  the  center?  Note  the  same  things  in  connection  with  the 
high.  Does  this  agree  with  what  we  have  already  learned  about  the  movement  of 
air  currents? 

The  lows  are  sometimes  called  cyclones,  because  the  great  mass  of  air  is  moving 
in  a  circle  toward  the  center  of  the  low.  (This  does  not  mean  the  same  as  the  term 
cyclone  that  we  use  to  indicate  a  tornado  or  storm.)  The  low  usually  starts  in  the 
west  and  moves  across  the  United  States  in  a  general  easterly  direction.  Whenever 
a  low  approaches  we  are  liable  to  have  cloudy,  rainy  weather.  When  a  high  is  pass- 
ing over  we  have  fair  weather.  These  lows  and  highs  are  constantly  passing.  Find 
the  lows  and  highs  on  the  maps  for  the  entire  month.  See  if  you  can  discover  about 
how  far  a  low  travels  from  one  day  to  the  next. 

Spend  at  least  one  lesson  discussing  the  weather  bureau  and  its  work.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  weather  bureau  are  at  Washington,  D.  C.  There  are  stations  situated 


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all  over  the  United  States.  At  each  station  reports  of  temperature,  wind,  etc.,  are 
sent  by  telegram  to  headquarters.  From  here  the  data  are  sent  to  every  station  that 
prints  a  weather  map.  An  expert  there  interprets  the  data,  makes  predictions  for 
the  weather,  all  of  which  are  printed  on  the  map.  Besides  the  daily  weather  map 
the  bureau  often  sends  out  special  reports  of  severe  storms  that  may  be  approaching. 

The  good  the  weather  bureau  does  is  hard  to  estimate.  Seamen,  fruit  growers 
and  farmers  are  all  learning  to  depend  upon  the  predictions  and  to  make  preparations 
for  approaching  storms  or  cold  wyaves. 

It  will  be  worth  while  to  continue  the  observation  of  the,  weather  and  especially 
of  the  weather  map  for  the  rest  of  the  winter.  Some  pupil  may  be  appointed  to 
see  that  the  new  \veather  map  is  put  up  each  day  where  everyone  may  see  it.  A 
few  minutes  spent  occasionally  in  having  pupils  report  weather  conditions  or  to  pre- 
dict weather  conditions  from  the  weather  map  and  their  own  observations  will  be 
quite  worth  while. 

AIE. — The  study  of  the  wind  will  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  to  apply  some 
of  the  physical  principles  studied  last  month.  What  is  wind?  Why  does  the  air  move? 
The  answer  to  this  takes  us  at  once  to  convection  currents.  The  children  found  that 
currents  of  air  in  the  room  were  due  to  the  fact  that  some  portions  of  the  air  were 
lighter  and  were  pushed  upward  by  the  heavier  cold  air.  Lead  them  to  picture 
what  is  happening  out  of  doors.  Some  portions  of  the  air  become  lighter  than  other 
portions  and  the  heavier  air  moves  toward  the  light,  causing  a  breeze  or  wind.  What 
causes  some  portions  of  air  to  be  lighter  than  other  portions?  The  children  have 
already  learned  that  when  air  is  heated  it  expands  and  becomes  lighter.  In  order  that 
they  may  think  out  whether  or  not  there  are  other  causes  that  make  air  light  they 
will  need  to  know  something  about  the  air  itself. 

What  is  air?  It  is  composed  of  a  number  of  invisible  gases.  The  gas  that  forms 
the  greatest  amount  of  the  air  is  nitrogen.  It  constitutes  almost  the  three-fourths  of 
the  air  volume.  The  most  important  gas  is  oxygen.  This  constitutes  almost  one- 
fourth.  The  other  two  gases  that  we  should  remember  are  carbon- dioxide  and  water 
vapor.  Each  of  these  constitutes  a  very  small  portion  of  the  air. 

Discuss  the  characteristics  of  air.  It  has  at  least  two  qualities  that  are  of  great 
importance.  One  is  weight,  the  other  pressure.  Have  the  children  try  to  think  out 
some  way  to  prove  that  air  has  weight.  While  air  is  not  very  heavy,  yet  if  you  had 
a  pair  of  balances  and  should  weigh  a  large  bottle  that  is  full  of  air  then  remove 
the  air  from  the  bottle  by  means  of  an, air  pump  you  would  find  that  the  bottle  is 
quite  a  little  lighter  than  before. 

We  can  show  that  the  air  has  pressure  by  some  simple  experiments.  Fill  a 
tumbler  full  of  water,  hold  your  hand  over  the  mouth  and  quickly  invert  it  into  a  pan 
of  water.  Hold  it  so  that  the  mouth  is  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
pan.  Try  the  same  experiment  with  the  tallest  bottle  you  can  find.  What  holds  the 
water  up  in  the  glass  and  bottle?  It  is  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water  in  the  pan.  The  air  is  pushing  downward  upon  the  water  with  great 
enough  force  to  hold  the  water  in  the  glass.  The  pressure  is  due  to  weight.  How 
far  up  does  the  air  extend  that  is  pushing  downward  upon  the  pan  of  water?  (As 
far  as  the  air  extends  outward  from  the  earth  which  is  somewhere  between  50  and 
100  miles.)  You  can  think  then  of  a  great  column  of  air  extending  upward  from 
the  pan  of  water.  What  part  of  the  column  will  exert  the  greatest  pressure?  To 
answer  this  think  of  a  great  pile  of  books  on  top  of  each  other.  The  lower  one  will 
have  the  weight  of  all  the  others  pressing  down  upon  it.  The  same  thing  is  true 
in  the  column  of  air.  The  pressure  is  greater  at  the  lowest  part  because  of  the 
weight  of  all  the  air  above  it.  Where  is  there  greater  air  pressure,  on  a  mountain 
top  or  in  a  valley?  Why? 

Do  you  think  we  could  find  a  tube  so  long  that  the  air  pressure  could  not  hold 
the  water  to  the  top  of  it  as  it  does  in  the  glass  and  the  bottle  ?  We  can  not  answer 
this  by  experiment  for  it  would  take  a  tube  much  too  long  to  make  the  test.  We 
can  try  it,  however,  in  another  way.  Instead  of  using  water  we  can  use  another 
liquid,  mercury,  which  is  about  thirteen  and  a  half  times  as  heavy  as  water.  For 
this  experiment  you  will  need  a  glass  tube  at  least  thirty  inches  long  and  closed  at 
one  end.  The  tube  should  have  a  very  small  diameter.  Fill  the  tube  full  of  mercury. 
(An  easy  way  to  do  this  is  to  make  a  small  funnel  out  of  paper  to  insert  in  the 
mouth  of  the  tube.)  Invert  the  tube  into  a  dish  of  mercury  just  as  you  did  the 
bottle  in  the  pan  of  water.  What  happens?  Why  did  some  of  the  mercury  flow 
out?  Why  did  it  stop  after  a  certain  portion  had  flowed  out?  The  pressure  of 


123 

the  air  was  not  sufficient  to  hold  up  all  the  mercury  so  the  mercury  flowed  out 
until  the  air  pressure  was  great  enough  to  hold  up  the  column  that  was  left.  (This 
point  should  not  be  left  until  the  children  can  see  clearly  that  the  mercury  column 
in  the  tube  is  held  up  or  balanced  by  a  column  of  air  of  the  same  diameter  but 
reaching  upward  as  far  as  the  air  goes.  The  children  may  see  this  more  clearly 
by  comparing  the  mercury  and  the  air  to  a  pair  of  balances,  one  arm  equals  the  other 
in  weight.) 

If  something  should  cause  the  air  to  become  lighter  would  the  mercury  go  up 
or  down  ?  What  would  be  the  effect  on  the  mercury  if  the  air  should  become  heavier  ? 
Measure  by  means  of  a  yard  ruler  the  exact  height  of  the  mercury.  Leave  the  ap- 
paratus standing  for  a  number  of  days  and  with  the  ruler  measure  the  height  each 
day.  Does  the  mercury  column  vary?  If  it  does  then  the  air  pressure  must  vary 
also  and  you  are  able  to  measure  this  variation  of  the  air  column  by  means  of  the 
mercury  column.  You  have  really  made  a  simple  barometer.  A  barometer  is  an  in- 
strument used  to  measure  air  pressure. 

Why  does  the  pressure  of  the  air  vary  from  day  to  day!  The  children  will  be 
able  to  give  one  reason.  They  know  that  warm  air  expands  and  hence  is  lighter  than 
cold  air  so  the  temperature  may  effect  the  air  pressure.  There  is  something  else, 
however,  that  for  some  reasons  is  even  more  important  than  temperature.  When 
air  has  a  great  amount  of  water  vapor  in  it  it  is  lighter  than  when  it  is  chiefly  made 
up  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  This  is  true  because  water  vapor  is  lighter  than  either 
of  these  gases.  Think  of  some  examples  that  illustrate  this  fact.  You  have  noticed 
that  sometimes  the  smoke  from  a  chimney  drops  to  the  ground.  Why  does  it  do  this  ? 
It  is  heavier  than  the  air,  hence  the  air  can  not  float  it  upward  as  it  usually  does. 
This  indicates  a  considerable  amount  of  water  vapor  in  the  air. 

When  there  is  a  great  deal  of  water  vapor  in  the  air  will  a  barometer  stand 
low  or  high?  If  what  we  have  said  above  is  true,  then  the  mercury  will  not  be  as 
high  because  the  air  is  not  heavy  enough  to  hold  it  up.  Will  a  low  or  high  barometer 
then  indicate  the  approach  of  stormy  weather?  (A  low  barometer  indicates  approach- 
ing stormy  or  rainy  weather,  while  a  high  barometer  indicates  fair  weather.) 

Pumps. — We  may  begin  the  study  of  pumps  with  a  simple  experiment.  Place 
the  end  of  an  open  glass  tube  in  a  tumbler  of  water.  Slowly  suck  the  air  from  the 
tube.  What  happens?  Wliy  does  the  water  rise  in  the  tube!  (You  have  removed 
the  air  from  the  tube  and  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  water  in  the  tumbler 
pushes  the  water  up  into  the  tube.)  This  illustrates  in  a  simple  way  what  happens 
when  you  pump  water  with  an  ordinary  suction  pump.  This  may  be  shown  better 
by  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus.  The  children  should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  try 
their  skill  in  making  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus  to  illustrate  the  working  of  the 
pump.  Procure  a  straight  lamp  chimney,  two  pieces  of  cork,  a  glass  tube,  some  pieces 
of  thin  leather  and  some  wire.  Make  a  hole  in  one  piece  of  a  cork  and  fit  the  piece 
of  glass  tubing  into  this  hole  so  that  the  tubing  will  come  just  to  the  surface  of 
the  cork.  Over  the  hole  place  a  thin  piece  of  leather,  fasten  it  at  one  end  with  a 
small  tack  or  pin.  This  cork  should  fit  closely  into  the  lower  end  of  the  chimney. 
Make  a  similar  hole  in  the  end  of  the  second  cork  and  fasten  a  piece  of  leather  in 
the  same  way  over  the  opening.  Fasten  a  piece  of  wire  into  the  cork  so  that  it 
will  make  a  curve  at  least  an  inch  above  the  cork.  To  this  wire  fasten  another  heavier 
wire.  This  cork  should  be  trimmed  off  so  that  it  will  move  easily  up  and  down  in 
the  chimney.  You  now  have  all  the  parts  of  a  simple  suction  pump.  The  chimney 
is  the  pump  barrel  or  cylinder.  The  cork  that  moves  up  and  down  is  the  piston 
and  the  wire  with  which  you  move  it  is  the  piston  rod.  The  bits  of  leather  covering 
the  openings  are  valves. 

Place  the  glass  tube  of  the  pump  into  a  dish  of  water.  Pull  the  piston  upward. 
What  happens?  Xow  move  the  piston  downward  and  watch.  What  effect  did  the 
lifting  of  the  piston  in  the  first  place  have  upon  the  air  in  the  cylinder?  A  portion 
of  the  air  was  lifted  up  with  the  cylinder,  hence  the  air  pressure  upon  the  water  in 
the  pan  was  greater  than  that  in  the  cylinder  and  pushed  the  water  upward  through 
the  lower  valve.  Have  the  children  watch  carefully  so  that  they  may  tell  everything; 
that  happens  when  you  move  the  piston  downward.  Why  does  the  water  move  up- 
ward through  the  upper  valve  and  why  does  the  lower  valve  remain  closed?  The 
pressure  now  is  due  to  the  force  with  which  you  are  pushing  the  piston  downward. 
This  force  of  the  water  pushes  upon  the  lower  valve  and  holds  it  down,  but  the  same 
force  causes  the  water  to  push  against  the  lower  part  of  the  piston  which  opens  the 
upper  valve  and  gives  the  water  a  chance  to  rush  through.  This  is  exactly  what 
happens  when  we  pump  water  from  a  well. 


124 

Spend  a  short  time  helping  the  children  to  see  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  in 
the  case  of  the  pump  is  really  doing  some  work,  that  is,  it  is  exerting  energy.  Have 
them  think  of  some  other  ways  in  which  the  air  does  work  or  exerts  energy.  (The 
wind  mill,  sail  boats,  the  energy  exerted  in  the  time  of  storms  when  buildings  and 
trees  are  overturned.) 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOB  FEBRUAKY. — Poultry  raising;  breeds  of  chickens  of  the 
neighborhood;  characteristics  of  each;  feeding,  housing,  general  care.  Incubators 
and  brooders;  expenses,  profits,  other  kinds  of  barnyard  fowls;  value  and  peculiar- 
ities of  each.  Scrapbook. 

Where  fruit  trees  were  studied  in  the  fall  take  up  the  study  of  propagation  by 
grafting.  Why  necessary?  History.  History  of  an  apple  tree  from  seed  to  maturity. 
Make  grafts.  Spraying,  pruning,  planting. 

POULTRY. — There  are  few  schools  in  Illinois  either  in  town  or  country  in  which 
lessons  on  poultry  may  not  be  of  value. 

The  first  lesson  may  well  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  some  of  the  things  that 
the  children  already  know  about  poultry.  What  different  kinds  of  poultry  are  raised 
in  the  district?  What  different  breeds  of  chickens?  How  many  people  keep  just 
one  breed?  Who  keeps  a  mixture  of  several  breeds? 

Follow  this  with  a  study  of  the  characteristics  of  chickens.  Give  the  children 
a  number  of  points  to  discover  by  actual  observation  at  home.  How  many  different 
kinds  of  feathers  can  you  find  on  a  hen?  How  do  the  feathers  overlap?  Do  they 
differ  in  this  respect  on  different  parts  of  the  body?  How  do  the  feathers  of  the 
cocks  differ  from  those  of  the  hens? 

ORGANS  OF  LOCOMOTION.— Note  the  feet  of  the  chickens.  Are  they  placed 
near  the  front  or  back  part  of  the  body?  How  many  toes  are  there?  Are  they  the 
same  length?  What  is  found  at  the  end  of  each  toe?  Do  the  hens  walk  on  their  toes 
or  on  the  sole  of  the  foot?  (Chickens  and  all  birds  walk  on  tiptoe.  The  segment  that 
we  often  call  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  is  really  the  foot.  The  foot  ends  at  the  first 
joint.)  Has  the  foot  any  protective  covering?  Why  are  scales  a  better  covering  for 
the  feet  and  toes  than  feathers  ?  Do  you  find  any  chickens  that  have  feathers  on  their 
feet?  Try  to  find  out  how  chickens  hold  their  toes  on  the  perch  at  night.  (The  toes 
curve  around  the  perch  and  the  chickens  rest  upon  its  feet  in  such  a  way  that  the 
weight  of  the  body  helps  to  hold  it  fast  to  the  perch.) 

What  other  organs  of  locomotion  do  chickens  have  besides  the  feet?  To  what  do 
the  wings  in  chickens  correspond  in  other  animals?  (They  correspond  to  the  fore 
legs  in  mammals  and  to  the  arms  of  people.  If  you  look  at  the  bones  of  a  chicken 's 
wing  you  will  find  that  they  correspond  to  your  own  upper  and  lower  arm.  You  can 
even  find  some  of  the  small  bones  of  the  wrist  and  hand.) 

PROCURING  FOOD. — What  is  the  chief  organ  the  hens  uses  in  procuring  her 
food?  Is  the  beak  or  bill  well  adapted  for  its  purpose?  Is  it  hard  or  soft;  sharp  or 
blunt?  Does  it  differ  at  all  in  different  breeds  of  chickens?  Name  the  different  kinds 
of  food  you  have  seen  hens  eating,  and  the  different  ways  using  the  beak.  Do  you 
know  how  a  hen  cleans  her  bill?  (You  will  find  her  stroking  it  on  a  board  or  some 
other  hard  substance.)  Has  the  hen  any  teeth?  (You  can  not  find  the  answer  to  this 
question  by  observation  so  you  must  take  it  on  authority.  Hens  have  no  teeth.  They 
sometimes  use  the  bill  to  break  up  particles  of  food,  but  they  do  not  chew  food  at  all. 
You  probably  know  that  the  food  is  ground  up  by  small  pebbles  and  other  hard 
particles  in  the  gizzard.) 

Is  the  bill  of  any  other  use  to  the  hen  than  to  obtain  food?  (It  is  used  as  a 
weapon  of  defense,  to  clean  and  oil  the  feathers,  and  to  turn  the  eggs  during  in- 
cubation.) 

SENSE  ORGANS. — Name  all  the  sense  organs  you  can  find  on  the  head  of  a 
chicken.  Note  the  position,  shape,  and  color  of  the  eyes.  Can  the  hen  see  the  same 
object  with  both  eyes  at  the  same  time?  Are  there  any  eyelids  present?  If  you  watch 
a  chicken  closely  you  will  find  that  the  lower  lid  moves  upward  and  closes  the  eye. 
There  is  another  lid  which  is  a  thin  membrane  that  spreads  over  the  eye  like  a  veil. 
This  is  found  in  all  birds  and  is  used  as  a  protection  to  the  eye. 

Where  are  the  ears  situated?     You  will  find  the  ears  as  small,  irregular  open- 


125 

ings  on  the  sides  of  the  head.    Usually  they  are  covered  with  feathers.    Although  the 
external   ear   is   so  inconspicuous  the   hen   can  hear   exceedingly   well.) 

Note  the  position  of  the  nostrils.  (These  are  the  small  openings  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  bill.  The  sense  of  smell  is  probably  not  very  keen  in  hens.) 

FEATHERS. — Spend  at  least  one  or  two  lessons  in  a  detailed  study  of  feathers. 
Tell  the  children  to  bring  as  many  different  kinds  of  feathers  as  they  can  find.  Each 
child  should  have  the  following:  A  feather  from  the  tail,  one  from  the  back,  breast, 
neck,  legs,  and  one  from  each  of  the  different  parts  of  the  wing.  (These  will  include 
the  stiff  outer  wing  feathers,  the  primaries;  the  row  of  large  feathers  next  to  these, 
the  secondaries;  and  the  finer,  overlapping  feathers,  the  coverts. 

The  main  tail  feather  is  a  good  one  from  which  to  get  the  names  of  the  different 
parts.  The  central  hard  portion  of  the  feather  is  called  the  shaft.  Some  people  call 
it  the  quill.  The  soft  portions  that  grow  out  from  the  shaft  are  the  barbs.  Are 
the  barbs  joined  together  in  the  tail  feather?  The  portion  near  the  end  where  they 
are  joined  closely  is  called  the  web.  The  loose  portion  of  the  barbs  near  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft  is  called  the  fluff.  Compare  the  different  feathers  as  to  the  amount 
of  web  and  fluff.  Which  has  more  fluff,  the  feathers  of  the  back  or  breast?  Which 
of  all  the  feathers  have  the  least  fluff?  Which  the  greatest  amount?  What  part  of 
each  feather  is  exposed  to  the  weather?  (Only  the  web  is  exposed.)  Look  closely 
to  see  how  much  of  each  web  is  exposed.  Can  you  think  of  the  value  of  this  great 
overlapping  of  the  feathers?  (Its  special  use  is  to  protect  the  body  from  rain.  It 
is,  of  course,  only  the  web  that  does  this.)  What  is  the  use  of  the  under-coat  of 
fluff?  Place  the  tips  of  your  fingers  close  to  the  body  in  the  fluffy  part  of  the 
feathers.  Now  place  them  on  the  outer  part  of  the  web.  Can  you  detect  any  differ- 
ence in  the  temperature?  Recall  what  you  learned  last  month  about  conductors  and 
non-conductors  of  heat  and  decide  in  which  class  feathers  belong.  (It  is  easy  to  see 
that  feathers  are  non-conductors  of  heat  and  that  the  use  of  the  fluffy  portions  is 
to  keep  the  chicken  warm  by  preventing  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  body.) 

How  does  the  hen  succeed  in  keeping  her  feathers  smooth  and  in  condition  to 
shed  water.  She  does  this  by  frequently  oiling  them.  If  you  watch  closely  you  may 
see  just  how  she  does  this.  She  has  a  small  oil  gland  situated  on  the  back  just  in 
front  of  the  tail.  She  obtains  the  oil  by  pressing  the  gland  with  her  beak,  then  she 
rubs  it  on  the  feathers,  especially  on  those  of  the  back  and  breast. 

It  is  worth  while  at  this  point  in  the  study  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  all 
of  the  characteristics  named  above  belong  not  alone  to  chickens  but  to  all  birds. 
Have  the  children  make  a  summary  of  these  characteristics. 

BREEDS  OF  CHICKENS. — If  there  are  representatives  of  different  breeds  of 
chickens  in  the  neighborhood,  a  visit  to  these  for  the  purpose  of  studying  their  char- 
acteristics will  be  greatly  worth  while.  Pictures  of  the  different  breeds  will  also 
help.  The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  make  a  chart  showing  pictures  of  differ- 
ent kinds.  These  may  be  obtained  from  poultry  journals  and  farm  papers. 

Poultry  raisers  group  the  breeds  into  four  great  classes:  Egg  breeds,  meat 
breeds,  general  purpose,  and  fancy  breeds. 

Egg  breeds  were  originally  European  birds  and  hence  are  known  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean class.  They  are  small,  active  chickens.  The  hens  are  noted  for  the  great 
numbers  of  eggs  that  they  lay  and  for  the  fact  that  they  rarely  want  "to  sit."  The 
most  common  varieties  are  Leghorns,  Minorca  and  Black  Spanish.  These  breeds  are 
not  widely  raised  in  Illinois  but  they  are  becoming  more  and  more  abundant. 

The  meat  breeds  are  known  as  the  Asiatic  class,  because  the  original  stock  prob- 
ably came  from  Asia.  There  are  two  common  varieties,  the  Brahma  and  Cochin. 
They  are  very  large,  heavy  bodied  chickens  and  produce  a  large  amount  of  meat. 
They  are  not  good  layers  and  are  of  little  value  in  raising  chicks. 

The  general-purpose  breeds  are  more  popular  than  any  other  in  our  state.  They 
belong  to  the  American  class,  because  they  have  been  produced  by  American  breeders. 
They  are  medium  in  size  and  are  comparatively  good  layers,  hence  they  are  useful 
in  producing  both  meat  and  eggs.  They  are  also  better  adapted  than  the  other  breeds 
to  raise  and  care  for  the  young.  The  common  varieties  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandotte,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds. 

The  children  should  compare  the  different  breeds  with  each  other  as  to  size, 
color,  shape  and  value.  The  fourth  breed  named  above  is  of  little  practical  value. 
Occasionally  some  one  raises  bantams  or  other  fancy  breeds  just  for  the  novelty 
of  it. 


126 

CARE  OF  POULTRY. — Make  a  list  of  items  you  would  consider  in  caring  for 
poultry.  (Housing,  feeding,  care  of  young.)  Have  the  children  tell  the  different 
methods  of  housing  used  in  the  neighborhood.  Follow  this  with  a  discussion  of  the 
points  that  should  be  observed  in  making  a  poultry  house.  One  of  the  first  things  to 
consider  is  how  to  get  plenty  of  sunlight  into  the  house.  Let  the  children  tell  how 
they  would  manage  this.  The  best  plan  is  to  have  the  building  face  the  south  with 
a  number  of  windows.  The  windows  should  be  high  enough  to  admit  sunlight  to  all 
parts  of  the  building.  In  the  second  place,  the  floor  should  by  dry.  That  means  that 
the  building  should  be  placed  on  well  drained  ground.  Some  poultrymen  elevate  the 
floor  several  inches  with  a  layer  of  gravel.  On  top  of  this  is  a  cement  floor.  A 
cement  floor  is  considered  very  good.  It  is  quite  inexpensive  since  it  is  not  necessary 
to  make  it  very  thick.  Another  advantage  of  this  floor  is  that  rats  are  not  so  likely 
to  get  into  the  house. 

The  third  important  consideration  is  ventilation.  A  way  must  be  provided  for 
exchange  of  air.  Some  poultry  houses  are  so  open  that  there  are  too  many  drafts. 
Many  plans  have  been  tried  for  securing  ventilation  without  drafts.  Probably  the 
best  method  yet  found  is  the  cloth  window.  This  may  be  made  of  muslin  or  cheese 
cloth  and  may  be  placed  in  one  of  the  south  windows  instead  of  glass. 

Discuss  next,  the  purpose  of  the  poultry  house.  (It  serves  two  main  purposes — 
a  place  for  roosting  and  for  nests.)  Discuss  different  kinds  of  perches.  Let  the 
children  describe  those  they  know  and  decide  which  are  most  economical  and  con- 
venient. The  most  important  point  is  to  have  the  perches  so  placed  in  relation  to 
the  nests  that  the  latter  will  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  Perhaps  the  most  practical 
method  used  is  to  place  the  nests  under  the  perches  with  a  platform  between.  In 
this  way  the  same  floor  space  is  used  for  perches  and  nests.  Many  poultry  raisers 
prefer  to  have  both  platform  and  perches  movable,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  out, 
cleaned  and  disinfected. 

Have  the  children  discuss  how  nests  are  made,  the  material  used,  and  the  size. 
(A  nest  should  be  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  square  and  from  six  to  eight  inches 
deep.) 

FEEDING. — Let  the  children  make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  poultry  foods 
used  in  the  district.  What  grains  are  fed?  Are  they  fed  dry  or  moist?  Whole  or 
ground?  Chickens,  like  all  other  animals,  need  a  certain  amount  of  starchy  foods  or 
carbohydrates,  proteids,  and  fats.  Laying  hens  require  a  large  amount  of  proteid  food 
because  the  white  of  egg  is  almost  pure  proteid.  Every  poultryman  decides  for  him- 
self the  exact  amount  of  the  different  kinds  of  feed.  All  feed  grain,  of  some  kind, 
part  whole  and  part  ground.  The  whole  grains  should  be  scattered  in  straw  on  the 
ground  or  floor  so  that  the  chickens  will  be  compelled  to  exercise  in  order  to  get  them. 
Meat  scraps  and  sour  milk  supply  the  proteid.  Green  food  of  some  sort  seems  to 
be  quite  essential.  This  may  be  supplied  by  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage,  beets, 
turnips,  etc.,  and  by  clover,  alfalfa  and  sprouted  oats.  Chickens  require  plenty  of 
fresh,  clean  water  as  well  as  food.  The  drinking  pan  should  be  emptied  and  fresh 
water  put  in  every  day. 

CHICKS — Discuss  the  methods  that  are  used  in  the  district  in  raising  chicks. 
How  early  in  the  spring  do  people  begin  to  set  the  hens?  Who  has  an  incubator?  If 
any  of  the  children  have  one  at  home  it  should  be  carefully  described.  How  warm 
must  the  incubator  be  kept?  (It  must  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  102°  F.  The 
heat  is  usually  supplied  by  a  small  oil  or  gas  heater.)  When  the  chicks  are  taken  from 
the  incubator  how  are  they  kept  warm?  Different  methods  are  employed  for  this 
but  usually  they  are  placed  in  a  brooder  which  is  a  small  box  with  strips  of  cloth 
among  which  the  chicks  may  cuddle  down  to  keep  warm.  Let  the  children  tell  how 
the  food  of  young  chicks  differs  from  that  of  grown  up  chickens. 

VALUE  OF  POULTRY. — Spend  one  lesson  discussing  the  value  of  poultry. 
Name  all  the  different  products  produced.  (Eggs,  meat,  feathers.)  How  important 
are  these  products?  They  are  becoming  more  and  more  important  each  year.  The 
demand  for  choice  chickens  and  fresh  eggs  is  constantly  on  the  increase  and  the  prices 
are  high  enough  to  make  poultry  raising  a  very  successful  business.  When  are  eggs 
the  highest  price?  Encourage  the  children  to  try  some  systematic  plan  of  feeding 
chickens  during  the  cold  months  and  note  the  effect  upon  the  yield  of  eggs. 

A  chicken  raising  contest  would  be  an  excellent  thing  to  start  in  many  districts. 
Encourage  the  children  to  raise  chickens  on  their  own  account.  Help  them  to  look 
up  plans  and  methods  in  farm  papers  and  magazines.  If  a  contest  is  anticipated,  a 


127 

simple  record  should  be  kept  by  each  pupil  as  follows :  ( 1 )  The  number  and  market 
value  of  chickens  he  has  to  start  with;  (2)  the  cost  of  food  and  all  other  necessary 
equipment;  (3)  the  number  of  eggs  obtained  and  value  at  the  market  price;  (4) 
number  of  chicks  raised  and  value  at  market  price;  (5)  approximate  amount  of  time 
spent  in  caring  for  the  chicks;  (6)  net  gain  or  loss  for  the  year;  (7)  notes  of  value, 
that  is,  things  that  are  worth  remembering  for  future  use. 

If  time  permits  a  comparative  study  of  other  kinds  of  poultry  will  be  worth 
while.  The  special  adaptations  of  bill,  feet  and  feathers  of  ducks  and  geese  should 
be  noted. 

GOVERNMENT  POULTRY  BULLETINS.— The  following  farmers'  bulletins, 
which  may  be  obtained  free  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C., 
will  be  found  helpful:  No.  287,  Poultry  Management;  No.  64,  Geese  and  Ducks; 
No.  51,  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens;  No.  236,  Incubators;  No.  200,  Turkeys; 
No.  225,  Poultry  House  Construction. 

PROPAGATION  OF  APPLE  TREES. — The  first  lesson  on  the  apple  tree  should 
be  a  brief  review  of  the  work  done  last  October.  Have  the  children  recall  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  apples  studied,  parts  of  an  apple,  and  the  care  and  marketing  of 
apples.  The  chief  question  left  over  at  that  time  was  how  apple  trees  are  propagated. 

How  an  apple  tree  is  produced  is  a  most  interesting  story.  If  the  story  can  be 
illustrated  by  actual  observation  and  handwork  it  will  be  of  great  value  to  the 
children.  The  very  best  way  to  bring  this  about,  if  there  is  a  nursery  in  the  dis- 
trict, is  to  make  a  visit  to  the  nursery  grounds  and  observe  what  is  actually  being 
done.  If  one  of  the  men  could  be  induced  to  come  to  the  school  room  and  give  a 
practical  demonstration  of  the  making  of  grafts  it  would  mean  much  to  the  chil- 
dren. This  should  be  followed  by  having  the  children  make  grafts  of  their  own. 

AVhy  is  it  necessary  to  graft  apple  trees?  To  answer  this  question  we  must 
know  the  entire  story  of  the  '  *  making  of  an  apple  tree. ' ' 

If  you  wish  to  produce  a  Jonathan  apple  tree,  how  would  you  proceed?  If  you 
planted  seeds  from  a  Jonathan  apple  and  let  the  tree  stand  until  it  was  old  enough 
to  bear,  would  it  give  you  Jonathan  apples?  It  probably  would  not,  in  fact  the 
apples  might  be  not  at  all  like  Jonathan  apples.  They  would  probably  be  small  and 
sour.  The  same  would  be  true  of  any  other  variety  of  apple  raised  from  seed.  We 
cannot  depend  upon  the  seeds  to  produce  a  desired  variety.  That  is  because,  as 
nurserymen  say,  apples  do  not  come  true  to  seed.  But  while  we  do  not  raise  our 
apple  trees  from  seeds,  we  begin  with  the  seeds  after  all.  The  seeds  are  planted  in 
the  fall  or  very  early  in  the  spring  in  long  drills.  These  grow  and  produce  small 
seedling  trees  the  first  year.  Any  apple  seeds  will  do  for  these  seedlings,  but  many 
nurserymen  use  the  seeds  of  a  hardy  wild  apple  that  grows  on  the  hillsides  of  France. 

The  seedlings  are  removed  from  the  ground  in  the  fall,  tied  up  in  bunches  of 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  each,  and  placed  in  moist  sand  or  moss  in  cool  cellars. 
During  the  winter  months,  usually  in  January  and  February,  these  are  grafted.  If 
you  wish  to  produce  a  Jonathan  apple  tree  you  will  choose  a  twig  from  a  Jonathan 
tree.  This  twig  we  call  the  scion.  You  will  get  one  of  the  seedlings  which  was 
placed  in  the  cellar,  cut  off  the  seedling  stem  from  the  root  and  on  this  root,  which 
is  called  the  stock,  you  will  graft  the  Jonathan  scion.  This  is  done  by  making  a 
diagonal  cut  on  both  stock  and  scion,  then  making  a  slit  on  the  cut  surface  of  each 
and  slipping  them  together.  This  is  the  first  step.  The  next  step  is  to  wrap  graft- 
ing thread  around  the  graft  to  help  hold  the  scion  and  the  stock  together.  When 
you  have  made  a  number  of  grafts  tie  them  together  and  place  them  in  a  cool  cellar. 
Leave  them  until  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  to  work  in  the  spring,  and  then  set 
them  out  in  a  row  nine  or  ten  inches  apart,  and  deep  enough  so  that  two  or  three 
inches  of  the  scion  will  be  above  the  ground.  The  scion  grows  fast  to  the  stock  and 
then  grows  upward  producing  the  little  apple  tree,  while  the  root  is  all  that  is  left 
of  the  seedling.  Nurserymen  leave  the  trees  from  two  to  three  years  in  the  nursery 
row,  then  they  are  ready  to  be  removed  and  set  out  in  the  orchard.  Do  you  know 
how  long  it  will  be  after  the  tree  is  set  out  in  the  orchard  before  it  will  produce 
apples?  (Different  kinds  of  apples  vary  in  this  respect.  Some  produce  apples  in 
six  or  eight  years,  others  require  ten  to  twelve  years.)  You  see,  then,  that  to  make 
an  apple  tree,  beginning  with  the  seed,  requires  one  year  before  it  is  ready  to  graft, 
two  or  three  years  in  the  nursery  row  and  from  six  to  ten  years  in  the  orchard  before 
it  bears  fruit. 


128 

How  long  do  you  expect  an  apple  tree  to  bear  fruit  after  it  once  begins?  You 
may  perhaps  have  visited  at  your  grandparents  where  there  is  an  orchard  still  bear- 
ing fruit  that  was  set  out  when  your  grandfather  was  a  young  man.  Apple  trees, 
if  well  taken  care  of,  will  bear  from  twenty  to  fifty  years. 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOE  MAECH. — Continue  corn  study.  Germination  tests.  Planting 
experiments  of  corn. 

Varieties  are  "adapted"  to  different  regions.  Competitive  corn  growing  with 
selected  and  tested  seed. 

Continue  wheat  study  in  locality  where  this  was  made  the  special  fall  study. 
Conditions  of  plants;  i(stooling  out"  habit.  Number  of  stems  from  one  root. 

Simple  treatment  of  plant  breeding  based  upon  corn  and  wheat  studies.  De- 
velop idea  of  improvement  of  plants  by  variation,  selection,  heredity,  adaptation. 
Struggle  for  existence  and  survival  of  fittest  in  wild  forms. 

COEN 

STUDY  OF  THE  KEENEL. — While  it  is  still  almost  two  months  until  corn 
planting  time,  nevertheless,  it  is  not  too  early  to  begin  planning  for  the  corn  crop. 
In  fact,  there  is  one  very  good  reason  for  beginning  at  once,  and  that  is  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  seed  is  in  perfect  condition. 

One  lesson  should  be  spent  in  discussing  how  the  seed  corn  of  the  neighborhood 
has  been  kept  during  the  winter.  Each  pupil  should  tell  exactly  what  method  has 
been  employed  in  his  home.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  various 
methods  should  be  considered.  This  will  afford  an  opportunity  to  review  the  October 
work,  especially  the  part  that  pertained  to  selecting  and  storing  seed. 

How  can  we  know  whether  the  seed  is  all  right,  that  is,  whether  all  the  grains 
will  germinate  and  grow?  There  is  but  one  way  and  that  is  to  make  a  germination 
test.  Before  starting  the  test  it  will  be  quite  worth  while  to  find  all  you  can  about 
a  kernel  of  corn.  Soak  a  number  of  kernels  over  night.  For  study  each  pupil  should 
have  at  least  two  soaked  grains  and  one  dry  one.  Compare  the  dry  and  soaked 
specimens,  noting  the  changes  that  have  taken  place. 

Carefully  remove  the  covering  from  a  soaked  grain.  Looking  at  the  flat  side 
decide  how  many  distinct  parts  there  are.  The  oval  shaped  portion  which  is  a 
dirty  white  color  in  the  embryo.  Sometimes  we  call  this  the  germ.  With  a  penknife 
remove  the  entire  embryo  using  care  not  to  tear  it.  Lay  the  rest  of  the  grain  aside 
and  examine  the  embryo.  On  the  upper  side  you  will  find  an  indistinct  slit.  Pull  it 
gently  apart  lengthwise  at  this  place  and  you  will  find  within  a  rod-like  body  slightly 
pointed  at  each  end.  This  is  the  tiny  plantlet.  The  end  toward  the  crown  of  the 
grain  is  called  the  plumule.  The  other  end 'is  the  hypocotyl.  Which  end  will  make 
the  shoot  and  which  the  root?  To  answer  this  question  try  the  following  experiment: 

Place  several  soaked  grains  on  a  piece  of  moist  blotting  paper.  Turn  a  tumbler 
or  cup  over  them  in  order  to  retain  the  moisture.  A  moist  piece  of  cloth  will  serve 
as  well  as  plotting  paper.  Keep  in  a  warm  place.  Examine  after  three  or  four 
days  and  the  corn  will  answer  the  question. 

Examine  the  portion  of  the  grain  that  was  laid  aside.  This  is  called  the  endos- 
perm. How  does  the  endosperm  compare  in  amount  with  the  embryo?  Cut  it  in 
two  across  the  grain.  Does  it  seem  to  be  made  of  the  same  kind  of  material  through- 
out? The  granular  portion  toward  the  upper  part  is  almost  pure  starch.  Do  you 
find  any  of  this  starch  toward  the  tip  of  the  grain?  The  hard,  solid  looking  material, 
at  the  sides  is  known  as  horny  starch. 

Pupils  of  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  grade  will  probably  know  that  the  function 
of  the  endosperm  is  to  furnish  food  for  the  growing  plant.  To  what  extent  is  the 
plant  dependent  upon  this  food  supply?  To  answer  this  carefully  remove  the  embryo 
from  a  number  of  seeds.  Plant  these  embryos  in  soil  in  a  flower  pot  or  can.  Place  in  a 
warm  temperature  and  keep  watered.  In  another  pot  plant  the  same  number  of 
whole  grains.  Let  them  stand  for  several  weeks  and  decide  how  great  the  value  of 
the  endosperm  is. 

GEEMINATION  TEST. — Different  people  use  different  methods  for  testing  the 
vitality  of  corn  seed.  The  methods  matter  little.  The  following  is  a  good  one: 


129 

Procure  a  shallow  box  three  or  four  inches  deep.  The  boys  may  make  one. 
Place  about  two  inches  of  clean,  moist  sand  in  the  bottom.  Soil  will  do  equally 
well  if  sand  is  hard  to  procure.  With  a  piece  of  board  make  the  surface  very  smooth. 
With  a  sharp  stick  or  the  end  of  a  ruler,  divide  the  surface  into  squares  two  and  a 
half  or  three  inches  each  way.  Place  the  number  1  at  one  corner  of  the  box.  Count 
the  number  of  squares  on  one  side.  Now  begin  the  second  row,  placing  the  number 
of  the  first  square  of  the  second  row  below  number  1,  for  example,  if  there  are  seven 
squares  and  number  1  is  at  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  number  8  is  just  below. 
Number  15  is  just  below  number  8.  All  of  the  other  numbers  may  be  easily  de- 
termined. 

The  next  step  is  to  get  the  corn  ready  for  the  box.  Have  the  children  bring 
seed  corn  from  home.  If  several  boxes  are  used  this  will  afford  an  opportunity  to 
test  the  advantages  of  different  methods  of  storing  the  seed.  Six  grains  from  each 
ear  should  be  tested.  Two  should  be  taken  from  the  ear  near  the  butt,  two  from 
the  middle,  and  two  toward  the  tip,  but  no  two  from  the  same  row.  Place  the  six 
grains  on  square  number  1  in  the  box  with  the  germ  side  up.  Press  them  slightly  into 
the  sand.  Now  number  the  ear  1.  This  may  be  done  by  sharpening  a  small  piece 
of  shingle,  putting  the  number  on  it  and  sticking  it  in  the  pith  at  the  butt  of  the 
ear.  Eemove  six  grains  from  another  ear  in  the  same  way  and  continue  till  all  the 
squares  are  full.  Lay  the  ears  aside  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed.  To  keep  the 
grains  moist,  place  a  piece  of  cloth,  old  muslin  or  any  cotton  cloth,  over  them  and 
put  about  two  inches  of  moist  sand  on  top.  Place  in  a  warm  temperature  and  keep 
moist. 

The  boys  may  be  interested  to  find  out  just  what  effect  different  temperatures 
have  upon  the  germinating  power  of  corn.  Have  them  suggest  an  experiment  they 
can  perform  to  test  this.  (Place  several  grains  from  the  same  ear  in  moist  cloth  or 
blotting  paper  and  put  some  of  them  in  a  very  cold,  some  in  moderate,  and  some 
in  a  very  warm  temperature.  If  possible,  use  a  thermometer  to  test  the  temperature 
of  each  place.) 

The  germination  box  will  be  ready  for  examination  in  four  or  five  days.  Begin 
at  one  end  and  carefully  roll  back  the  cloth  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  grains.  Now 
arrange  a  table  of  five  columns.  This  may  be  placed  on  the  board. 


NO. 

VIG. 

WEAK 

FAIL, 

PER  CENT 

1 

2 
3 

6 

2 
5 

1 

4 

100 

33^ 
83M 

In  the  table  the  first  column  indicates  the  number  of  the  ear.  Vig.  stands  for 
vigorous.  The  other  terms  explain  themselves.  Ear  number  1  shows  that  all  six 
grains  have  sprouted  vigorously  and  the  per  cent  is  of  course  100.  Ear  No.  2  has 
two  vigorous  sprouts  and  four  failures,  hence  it  gives  but  33%  per  cent.  When  the 
entire  box  has  been  checked  up  in  this  fashion,  it  will  be  easy  to  see  which  ears  should 
be  kept  for  planting  and  which  discarded.  What  percent  of  a  perfect  stand  of  corn 
would  you  expect  to  get  from  ear  No.  2?  From  ear  No.  3?  Encourage  the  children 
to  make  germination  tests  of  the  seed  corn  at  home.  A  report  on  this  work  should 
be  given  credit  in  school. 

PEEPAEATION  FOE  PLANTING.— Spend  some  time  in  a  discussion  of  the 
fields  in  the  neighborhood  in  which  corn  is  to  be  planted  this  season.  What  was  grown 
in  them  last  year?  If  corn,  what  was  the  yield  per  acre?  What  preparation 
of  the  soil  will  be  necessary  before  the  corn  is  planted?  It  will  be  an  interesting 
exercise  for  each  boy  to  write  a  short  extract  on  the  topic,  ' '  The  Machinery  Needed 
to  Eaise  a  Crop  of  Corn."  This  should  show  the  implements  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  seed  bed,  in  planting  and  in  cultivating.  It  should  indicate  also,  the 
ideals  the  boys  have  of  good  seed  bed  and  proper  methods  of  cultivation. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  ADAPTATION  OF  COEN.— In  order  that  the  children 
may  appreciate  what  an  important  plant  corn  is,  some  time  should  be  spent  in  look- 
ing up  facts  about  it.  One  thing  worth  remembering  is  that  corn  belongs  botanically 


130 

to  the  Grass  family,  that  is,  it  is  a  relative  of  timothy  and  bluegrass,  wheat  and  oats, 
sorghum  and  broom  corn.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  entire  group.  It  differs 
from  all  the  rest  in  bearing  its  seeds  on  a  short  side  branch,  which  we  call  the  ear. 
All  the  rest  bear  their  seeds  at  the  top  of  the  stalk. 

Corn  is  a  native  of  America  and  is  probably  more  widely  distributed  than  any 
other  grain.  It  grows  in  all  of  our  states  and  territories,  except  Alaska,  as  well  as 
in  Mexico  and  Canada.  While  this  is  true,  after  all,  the  greatest  amount  is  raised 
in  a  comparatively  small  area  known  as  the  "corn  belt."  Can  you  think  why  this 
is  true?  The  great  yield  of  corn  in  the  corn  belt  is  due  to  two  important  factors, 
climate  and  soil.  Here  the  soil  is  deep  and  rich  and  there  is  enough  rain  and  sun- 
shine to  enable  the  corn  to  reach  its  climax  growth. 

If  you  should  move  one  hundred  miles  farther  north  and  take  seed  corn  with 
you  and  plant  it,  what  would  probably  be  the  result?  Your  crop  would  fail  to 
mature,  because  the  seed  you  have  brought  with  you  is  not  accustomed  to  the  new 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 

The  farther  north  you  go  the  smaller  ears  you  find.  The  grains  are  shallow  and 
have  a  smooth,  round  crown.  They  contain  less  starch  and  more  of  the  horny 
material.  The  stalks  are  shorter,  smaller  and  have  less  woody  material  in  them, 
hence  are  better  adapted  for  fodder  than  the  larger  corn.  This  kind  of  corn  is 
called  Flint. 

Here  in  Illinois  we  raise  Dent  corn.  The  crown  of  this  corn  has  a  deep  dent. 
The  grains  are  deep  and  contain  a  vast  amount  of  starch.  The  stalks  are  much  larger 
and  harder  than  Flint  corn. 

PLANS  FOE  CORN-GROWING. — If  there  is  an  agricultural  club  in  the  school, 
encourage  the  boys  to  begin  at  once  making  plans  for  a  corn-growing  contest.  They 
should  feel  the  importance  of  testing  their  seed  corn  and  using  the  best  knowrn 
methods  to  prepare  the  seed  bed,  plant,  and  care  for  their  crop.  If  there  is  no  club, 
organize  one  or  encourage  the  boys  of  the  class  to  start  corn  plots  of  their  own. 

WHEAT 

In  localities  where  wheat  was  studied  in  the  fall,  continue  the  work  this  spring. 
Have  the  pupils  recall  what  was  done  with  the  wheat  in  the  fall.  When  was  it 
planted?  Was  it  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills?  Was  the  seed  home-grown?  Do  you 
know  the  name  of  the  variety  used  on  your  home  farm? 

The  children  should  be  given  some  observations  to  make  outside  of  school.  Has 
any  of  the  w^heat  remained  green  over  winter?  Has  any  of  it  been  winter-killed? 
What  kind  of  winter  weather  is  hard  on  wheat?  Examine  some  of  the  plants.  Dig 
up  one  and  note  the  root  system.  How  deep  do  the  roots  go?  Determine  as  accurately 
as  you  can  how  far  they  spread  out  on  each  side  of  the  plant.  Have  any  new  leaves 
developed  this  spring?  On  what  part  of  the  plant  are  they?  Are  the  stems  erect 
or  spreading?  Is  this  habit  of  growth  any  advantage  to  the  plant?  (This  is  a 
protection.  If  the  plants  had  grown  erect  instead  of  spreading  out  last  fall,  they 
probably  would  not  have  stood  the  winter  conditions  as  well  as  they  did.) 

The  outdoor  observations  with  reports  may  continue  throughout  the  term.  Watch 
the  development  of  the  plants.  How  many  stems  grow  from  one  cluster  of  roots? 
This  whole  group  of  stems  arising  from  one  cluster  forms  what  is  called  a  stool. 
When  does  the  plant  begin  to  send  up  the  stem  which  is  to  bear  the  grains?  From 
what  part  of  the  plant  does  this  stem  arise?  Are  there  any  leaves  on  it?  Is  it 
hollow?  What  is  the  average  height  of  the  stems?  Measure  several  and  compute 
the  average.  Are  the  stems  in  the  field  nearly  equal  in  height? 

About  what  time  does  the  wheat  begin  to  ' '  head  ? ' '  This  head  which  is  called 
a  spike  is  really  a  cluster  of  flowers.  You  may  be  interested  to  open  up  one  of  the 
small  flowers  to  see  if  you  can  find  the  stamens  and  pistil.  (In  wheat,  the  stamens 
and  the  pistil  are  in  the  same  flower  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  pollen  rarely 
escapes  from  the  flower.)  Do  you  think  there  is  any  possibility  of  cross-pollination 
in  wheat?  How  long  is  it  after  the  flowers  have  opened  before  the  grains  are  ripe? 
Note  the  change  of  color  that  takes  place  as  the  wheat  matures.  Which  leaves  stay 
green  longest? 

How  many  heads  do  you  find  arising  from  one  stool?  How  many  good  grains  in 
one  head?  Compare  several  heads  in  this  respect.  About  what  date  is  the  wheat 
harvested  in  your  neighborhood? 


131 
APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOE  APEIL  AND  MAY. — Seed  testing.  Examine  clover  and  grass 
.s-tt-tZ  u-ith  hand  lens  to  find  weed  seeds  and  other  impurities.  Compare  weed  seeds  with 
collected  last  fall  to  identify  kinds. 

Principles  of  landscape  gardening.  Study  placing  of  shrubs,  trees,  vines  and 
floicer  beds  on  home  and  school  grounds;  plan  to  set  out  shrubs  on  Arbor  Day. 

Birds  beneficial  to  farm  crops;  quail,  meadow  lark,  native  sparrows,  thrasher. 
Birds  of  prey. 

Study  clover  plants,  hatbis  of  growth,  length  of  roots,  tubercles  on  roots.  Iden- 
tify other  legumes;  examine  roots  for  tubercles.  Prepare  small  plots,  where  favor- 
able, and  plant  alfalfa  with  and  without  inoculation. 

Arrange  plans  for  vacation  studies  and  experiments  with  corn,  potatoes,  clover, 
icheat,  fruit  tree ;  vegetables  and  flower  studies  for  girls. 

SEED  TESTING. — For  testing  seeds  a  hand  lens  is  necessary.  The  purpose  of 
this  study  is  to  help  the  pupils  to  identify  different  kinds  of  seeds.  Begin  with  dis- 
cussion of  the  kinds  of  clover  that  the  pupils  know.  Who  in  the  neighborhood  ex- 
pects to  sow  clover  this  spring?  Is  clover  sown  by  itself  or  with  other  crops?  Do 
farmers  in  the  neighborhood  sow  clover  in  the  same  field  with  oats?  With 
wheat?  With  timothy?  What  is  the  purpose  of  sowing  it  in  some  particular  field? 
Is  it  to  be  left  a  number  of  years  to  make  a  meadow?  Is  it  to  be  plowed  under  in 
a  year  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  soil? 

Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  small  samples,  about  a  teaspoonful,  of  the  clover  seed 
which  their  fathers  may  be  going  to  plant.  (It  will  add  to  the  interest  to  make  a 
collection  of  different  kinds  of  clover  seed.)  Spread  some  of  the  seeds  out  on  a  sheet 
of  white  paper.  Look  at  them  first  with  the  naked  eye  to  see  if  you  can  find  any 
objects  which  are  certainly  not  clover  seed.  Do  you  find  seeds  of  some  other  kinds? 
Are  any  of  the  clover  seeds  too  small  and  shriveled?  If  possible,  examine  also 
with  a  hand  lens. 

Place  all  of  the  shriveled  seeds,  weed  seeds,  and  other  foreign  bodies  in  one 
pile,  and  the  good  clover  seeds  in  another.  About  what  per  cent  of  the  whole  is 
good  seed  ? 

In  preparation  for  the  further  study  of  clover,  plant  a  few  seeds  in  a  pan  or 
box  of  soil  in  the  school  room.  Keep  well  watered.  Keep  record  of  the  date  of 
planting  and  of  the  date  of  the  appearance  of  sprouts.  Plant  seeds  at  different 
depths,  some  an  inch,  some  half  an  inch,  some  a  quarter,  and  some  on  top  of  the 
soil.  Keep  records  of  the  germination  and  growth  of  the  plants. 

Compare  any  weed  seed  that  may  be  found  in  the  oats,  clover,  or  grass  with 
those  stored  away  in  the  collection  last  fall.  If  some  of  the  seeds  cannot  be  iden- 
tified plant  them  in  soil  and  watch  for  the  growing  plant  hoping  in  this  way  to 
identify  the  seeds. 

ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS. — If  nature-study  does  all  that  it  should  for  the 
boys  and  girls,  it  will  not  only  help  them  to  appreciate  the  wild  life  of  woods,  fields 
and  waysides,  but  it  will  also  lead  them  to  take  pride  in  making  beautiful  their  own 
homes  and  surroundings. 

TREES. — Begin  the  work  with  an  informal  discussion  of  ornamental  plants. 
Ask  the  pupils  how  they  would  classify  them.  Lead  them,  for  themselves  if  possible, 
to  recognize  the  following  groups:  trees,  shrubs,  vines,  and  flowering  plants.  Make 
a  Jist  of  all  the  trees  of  the  neighborhood  that  the  pupils  know.  Are  these  trees  native 
to  the  soil,  or  were  they  set  out?  Distinguish  as  far  as  you  can  between  those  which 
grow  naturally  in  your  environment  and  those  which  have  been  introduced.  A  few 
lessons  should  be  devoted  to  getting  acquainted  with  these  trees.  Usually,  if  neces- 
sary, someone  can  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  able  and  willing  to  help  the  teacher 
in  her  identifications.  In  getting  acquainted  with  a  kind  of  tree,  study  the  charac- 
teristic, general  shape,  the  color  of  the  bark,  the  method  of  branching,  and  the  nature 
of  the  twigs  as  to  whether  they  are  stiff  and  erect,  or  slender  and  drooping. 

How  are  the  buds  arranged  on  the  twigs?  Are  the  leaves  opposite  or  alternate? 
Compare  the  twigs  of  different  trees  in  this  respect.  What  advantage  in  the  great 
number  of  buds?  Would  it  be  possible  for  all  the  buds  to  develop  into  branches? 
Watch  for  flowers  and  the  formation  of  fruit.  Bring  out  opinions  upon  which  trees 
are  most  beautiful.  Which  most  desirable  for  shade?  What  objections  to  the  cotton 
wood  as  an  ornamental  tree? 


132 

Are  there  any  trees  in  the  school  yard?  What  kinds?  Are  they  in  good  condi- 
tion? Have  they  been  abused?  How  are  trees  injured?  Are  the  trees  in  the  yard 
well  located?  Why  are  trees  usually  transplanted  before  spring  begins?  Is  the 
school  yard  large  enough  to  permit  a  belt  of  trees  and  still  leave  plenty  of  play 
ground  ? 

Bring  out  opinions  as  to  the  best  places  on  the  school  ground  to  set  out  trees. 
There  should  be  at  least  a  row  of  trees  on  each  side  of  the  lot  and  a  few  trees  in 
the  rear.  Do  you  think  there  should  be  many  trees  in  front  of  the  school  house? 
This  is  not  considered  a  good  plan,  since  an  unbroken  expanse  of  lawn  in  front  of  a 
house  is  much  more  attractive.  To  have  a  row  of  trees  outside  the  yard,  along  the 
roadside,  is  considered  a  good  plan. 

Have  the  pupils  draw  a  simple  plot  of  the  school  grounds,  putting  in  the  build- 
ings, and  have  them  indicate  where  they  think  trees  should  be  placed. 

SHRUBS. — Are  there  many  shrubs  in  the  home  yards,  in  the  school  yard,  along 
the  roadsides  or  in  the  fence  corners?  Make  a  list  of  the  shrubs  the  pupils  know. 
How  do  shrubs  differ  from  trees  in  their  habits  of  growth?  Nothing  helps  more  to 
make  a  school  or  home  yard  attractive  than  a  few  well  chosen  shrubs.  Where  shall 
we  place  them?  They  should  not  be  planted  singly.  They  should  be  planted  in 
clumps  so  as  to  produce  a  mass  effect.  A  clump  at  the  corner  of  the  building, 
another  where  the  platform,  or  steps,  or  ante-room  meets  the  main  building,  another 
in  a  corner  of  the  yard,  and  a  few  to  screen  the  outbuildings.  These  are  enough, 
unless  the  yard  is  very  large,  to  produce  a  very  pleasing  effect.  Where  the  yard  is 
very  large,  a  few  clumps  along  the  side  of  the  lot,  making  an  irregular  border,  is  an 
excellent  arrangement. 

How  shall  we  arrange  the  shrubs  that  go  to  make  up  a  single  clump?  If  they 
are  at  a  corner  of  the  building  or  yard  then  the  tall  upright  shrubs  should  be  placed 
in  the  rear  that  is,  farthest  from  the  center  of  the  yards,  and  lower  ones  in  front. 
A  very  pretty  clump  for  a  small  space  is  made  by  placing  spirea  (bridal- wreath) 
behind,  and  a  Japanese  barberry  on  each  side  toward  the  front.  In  a  corner  of  the 
yard  aothing  is  better  than  our  native  sumach,  which  turns  such  a  beautiful  dull  red  in 
the  fall,  or  our  native  elder.  These  should  be  in  the  background  and  may  be  bordered 
with  barberry,  dogwood,  or  snowdrop. 

VINES. — Make  a  list  of  vines  which  the  pupils  already  know.  We  may  plant 
either  hardy,  perennial  vines,  or  annuals,  the  latter  being  the  kinds  which  die  com- 
pletely in  the  fall  and  must  be  started  from  seeds  again  in  the  spring.  Of  our 
native  hardy  perennials  nothing  is  better  than  woodbine,  which  is  also  called  five- 
leaved  ivy.  Of  the  annual  vines,  the  climbing  nasturtium,  the  morning  glory,  and 
the  wild  cucumber  are  good  and  easy  to  grow. 

Where  shall  we  place  the  vines?  If  the  yard  is  fenced,  the  back  fence  is  an 
excellent  place  for  a  vine.  Outbuildings  should  be  covered  with  vines.  It  is  better 
to  begin  with  these  places  than  to  try  to  plant  against  the  school  house  walls.  There 
are  certain  objections  to  that. 

FLOWEEING  PLANTS. — Every  school  yard  should  have  a  few  flowering  plants, 
even  if  there  is  no  regular  school  garden.  A  flower  bed  a  few  feet  wide,  bordering 
a  clump  of  shrubbery,  gives  a  very  pretty  effect.  A  narrow  bed  along  the  back  fence, 
with  vines  as  a  background,  is  a  thing  of  beauty  either  at  school  or  at  home.  It  is 
never  wise  to  place  a  flower-bed  in  the  middle  of  a  grass  plot.  Discuss  with  the 
pupils  where  flowering  plants  shall  be  placed  at  home  and  in  the  school  yard.  What 
are  some  of  the  characteristics  that  are  desirable  in  plants  that  are  to  be  grown  on 
the  school  grounds?  In  the  first  place  we  want  hardy  plants  that  can  stand  dry 
weather  without  watering.  Then  we  want'  plants  that  will  be  in  flower  when  school 
begins  in  September.  The  following  list  is  a  good  one  for  school  grounds :  Sweet 
alyssum,  candytuft,  dwarf  marigold,  petunia,  phlox  drummondi,  prince's  feather  or 
cock's  comb,  zinnia,  scabiosa,  gaillardia,  cosmos,  larkspur,  balsam,  sunflower,  nas- 
turtium, corn  flower. 

Discuss  what  points  should  be  considered  in  selecting  plants  for  a  flower  bed. 
The  height  of  the  plant  is  one  important  point.  We  want  the  low  plants  along  the 
border  of  the  bed  and  the  highest  ones  to  form  a  background  for  the  others. 
The  color,too,  must  be  considered.  It  is  not  in  good  taste  to  plant  a  great  many 
different  varieties  in  one  bed  but  choose  the  two  or  three  that  harmonize  well  in  color. 
Sweet  alyssum  makes  an  excellent  border  plant  for  any  group  of  flowering  plants. 


133 

Since  phlox  has  so  many  different  colors  a  whole  bed  of  that  is  pretty.  Sweet 
alyssiun  with  gaillardia  and  princes'  feather  makes  a  pretty  group.  Cosmos  makes 
a  good  background  for  almost  any  of  the  other  plants.  Candytuft  and  larkspur  make 
a  pretty  white  and  blue  group. 

A  few  definite  directions  for  planting  may  be  given.  The  soil  should  be  worked 
up  with  a  rake  till  it  is  fine.  If  straight  lines  are  desired  they  may  be  made  with  a 
cord  stretched  from  one  wooden  peg  to  another.  Furrows  for  small  seeds  may  be 
made  with  the  handle  of  a  rake  or  hoe.  Seeds  should,  as  a  rule,  be  planted  at  a 
depth  equal  to  about  four  times  the  thickness  of  the  seeds.  Very  fine  seeds  like 
petunia  may  be  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  then  lightly  sprinkled  with 
fine  soil.  The  soil  should  be  well-firmed  over  all  seeds.  Some  seeds  will  not  grow  at 
all  in  loose  soil. 

ARBOR  DAY. — All  of  this  study  should  reach  its  climax  on  Arbor  Day.  Plan 
on  this  day  to  do  something  to  make  the  school  surroundings  more  attractive.  If 
you  cannot  plant  many  trees  or  shrubs,  plant  one,  and  do  that  so  well  that  it 
will  grow  and  add  its  influence  toward  having  more  done  next  year.  Let  the 
children  help  to  decide  what  trees  should  be  planted.  Some  of  them  may  have 
growing  about  their  homes,  seedling  elms,  maples,  box-elders,  etc.,  that  they  will 
be  glad  to  have  transplanted  to  the  school  yard.  Discuss  where  the  trees  or  shrubs 
should  be  planted  to  give  the  best  effect,  and  yet  be  out  of  the  way.  How  to  plant 
the  trees  should  be  settled  before  attempting  to  set  them  out.  Some  points  to 
observe  are  the  following:  The  hole  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  roots  to 
spread  out  to  their  full  extent.  It  should  be  deep  enough  so  that  the  tree  may  stand 
three  or  four  inches  lower  than  it  did  as  a  seedling.  The  roots  should  be  kept  moist 
until  ready  to  set  in  the  ground.  Fine  soil  should  be  placed  around  the  roots  and 
packed  in  carefully.  As  more  soil  is  thrown  into  the  hole,  it  should  be  packed  down 
firmly  by  tramping  it  with  the  feet.  The  last  two  or  three  inches  of  soil  should  be 
fine  and  left  loose  to  help  keep  in  the  moisture.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but  not 
wet.  Most  horticulturists  believe  that  the  trees  do  better  if  not  watered  at  the  time 
of  planting.  The  trees  should  have  most  of  the  branches  cut  off.  A  young  tree 
will  do  better  than  a  large  one.  The  weeds  and  grass  should  be  kept  down  a  few 
feet  around  the  young  tree.  Cultivation  of  the  soil  now  and  then  by  digging  around 
the  tree  not  only  gives  a  chance  for  the  air  and  water  to  enter  the  soil,  but  the 
frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  on  top  helps  to  retain  the  moisture. 

The  Arbor  Day  program  should  be  made  so  interesting  that  the  patrons  of  the 
school  will  be  glad  to  witness  it.  Ample  suggestions  are  to  be  found  in  the  annual 
bulletin  on  Arbor  and  Bird  Day  issued  by  the  State  Superintendent 's  office. 

Encourage  the  pupils  to  plant  some  shrubs  and  trees  at  home,  and  begin  to  form 
plans  to  plant  some  flowers  next  month. 

BIRDS. — Devote  one  lesson  to  a  discussion  of  the  birds  that  the  pupils  have 
seen  in  the  neighborhood  this  spring.  Ask  them  to  watch  for  bird's  on  their  way 
to  and  from  school.  Xotice  where  the  birds  are  and  what  they  are  doing. 

QUAIL. — How  many  have  quail  on  their  farms?  How  many  have  heard  the 
quail  whistling  "bob  white"?  what  are  the  colors  of  the  quail?  Is  there  any  white 
on  the  head?  Do  the  birds  hop  or  walk!  Do  they  fly  high  or  low?  fast  or  slow? 
What  do  they  eat?  (It  may  not  be  easy  for  the  children  to  answer  the  last  question 
by  observation,  but  they  should  know  that  careful  studies  of  the  food  of  the  quail 
have  been  made  by  bird  students  and  that  these  birds  must  be  regarded  as  real 
benefactors  on  any  farm.  They  feed  upon  chinch  bugs,  army  worms,  Colorado  potato 
bug,  clover  leaf  beetles,  cucumber  beetles,  grasshoppers,  flies,  and  wire  worms.  They 
are  "worth  their  weight  in  gold"  to  every  farmer.) 

MEADOW  LARK. — How  many  know  the  meadow  lark  ?  What  is  the  color  of  the 
breast?  (bright  yellow.)  Look  for  the  black  crescent-shaped  spot  on  the  upper 
breast  when  it  flies.  Look  for  the  white  tail  feathers.  How  many  different  songs 
does  the  meadow  lark  have?  (It  has  a  clear,  beautiful  whistle,  its  chief  song;  then 
it  has  a  low  cackling  call  note  that  you  hear  most  frequently  from  the  ground  when 
the  bird  is  slightly  alarmed.)  Where  does  the  meadow  lark  feed?  (Chiefly  upon  the 
ground.  It  eats  about  the  same  kind  of  insects  the  quail  does.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  more  than  half  of  the  meadow  lark  ?s  food  consists  of  harmful  insects.  The 
meadow  lark  and  the  quail  head  the  list  of  birds  that  are  beneficial  to  farmers.) 


134 

SPARROWS. — Our  native  sparrows  are  field  birds  that  every  boy  and  girl  should 
know.  There  are  three  of  these  that  are  very  common.  They  are  the  song  sparrow, 
the  field  sparrow,  and  the  vesper  sparrow.  They  resemble  each  other  somewhat.  All 
are  small  birds  with  brownish  striped  backs.  All  are  pleasing  songsters.  They  are 
noted  seed  eaters.  During  the  fall  and  early  spring  they  destroy  millions  of  weed 
seeds.  During  the  summer  they  live  largely  upon  insects.  Besides  the  real  sparrows 
there  are  two  relatives  of  these  birds  that  are  frequently  found  along  the  hedge  rows 
of  many  fields.  One  is  a  bright  blue  bird,  blue  all  over.  It  sits  on  telephone  Avires 
and  sings  from  morning  till  night.  It  is  called  the  indigo-bird  or  blue-bunting. 
The  other  is  sometimes  called  the  little  meadow  lark.  It  has  a  yellow  breast  with 
a  black  spot  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  meadow  lark.  It,  too,  is  a  great 
singer,  and  like  the  indigo-bird  loves  to  sit  on  the  topmost  twig  of  the  hedge  or  on 
the  telephone  wires  and  sing  all  day  long.  The  right  name  of  this  bird  is  dick-cissel. 
It  has  been  given  this  name  because  its  song  sounds  like  dick,  dick,  cissel,  cissel.  Both 
of  these  birds  feed  upon  insects  during  the  nesting  season  just  as  the  sparrows  do. 

BROWN  THRASHER. — Another  common  field  bird  is  the  brown  thrasher. 
This  is  sometimes  called  the  browyn  thrush.  How  many  know  it?  What  is  the  color 
of  back?  The  breast?  Is  the  bill  long  or  short?  What  is  the  color  of  the  bill? 
Notice  the  long  tail.  Listen  for  the  song.  It  has  so  many  notes  that  it  is  some- 
times called  the  mocking  bird.  It  belongs  to  the  mocking  bird  family. 

CLOVER  AND  OTHER  LEGUMES. — If  clover  seeds  were  planted  as  suggested, 
check  up  the  experiments  and  decide  wThat  depth  of  planting  gives  best  results. 
Examine  an  oats  field  in  which  clover  has  been  sown.  Which  germinates  first,  oats 
or  clover. 

Study  red  clover  plants  that  are  at  least  a  year  old.  (Clover  plants  may  be 
found  in  almost  any  locality  in  fields,  meadows,  or  by  the  roadside.)  An  outdoor 
lesson  should  be  planned.  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  send  the  class  out  during  school 
hours  then  give  them  the  topics  to  report  on  the  next  day. 

Note  the  habit  of  growth  of  the  plant ;  a  rather  loose  rosette  close  to  the  ground. 
How  many  stems  do  you  find  in  one  rosette?  Do  the  stems  branch?  Where  do 
you  find  the  new  shoots  appearing?  Is  there  any  advantage  to  the  plant  in 
growing  this  close  to  the  ground  with  new  shoots  at  the  center?  Bring  out 
by  discussion  the  chance  this  gives  for  the  natural  coverings,  leaves  and  snow,  to 
protect  the  plant  during  the  winter.  Note  the  arrangement  of  leaves  and  the  number 
of  leaflets.  Later  compare  with  other  clovers  to  determine  wrhether  this  is  a  common 
characteristic  of  the  clover  family.  What  special  markings  has  the  red  clover  leaflets? 
(The  light  green  spots.)  Look  at  the  leaflets  after  sunset  to  see  if  they  remain  in 
the  same  position  as  during  the  daylight. 

Dig  up  a  plant  and  bring  it  into  the  schoolroom  for  study.  Note  the  size  of 
the  root.  How  long  is  it?  Does  it  branch?  What  advantage  is  this  thick,  long 
root  to  the  plant?  (By  discussion  bring  out  the  fact  that  the  thick  root  stores  up 
a  supply  of  food  that  enables  the  plant  to  grow  rapidly  early  in  the  spring.  The 
long  root  is  an  advantage  also  in  dry  weather  since  it  can  get  a  supply  of  moisture 
at  a  considerable  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.)  What  advantage  is  the 
root  to  the  soil? 

Look  at  the  roots  for  small  roundish  bodies  about  the  size  of  pin  heads.  These 
small  bodies  are  called  tubercles  or  nodules.  Where  do  you  find  the  tubercles  most 
numerous?  Count  the  number  on  a  small  root.  What  are  the  tubercles?  They  are 
growths  on  the  root  caused  by  small  living  organisms  known  as  bacteria.  These  bac- 
teria take  from  the  air  in  the  soil  the  free  nitrogen  and  act  upon  this  in  the  tubercles 
so  that  the  plant  can  use  it  just  as  it  can  the  more  usual  supply  of  soil  nitrogen  that 
enters  through  the  root  hairs  in  solution  in  the  soil  water.  From  your  study  of  soils 
and  the  elements  they  contain  that  are  used  by  the  plants  in  making  foods,  you  know 
that  nitrogen  is  often  lacking  in  the  soil  and  that  to  supply  it  with  commercial 
fertilizers  is  an  expensive  thing  to  do.  It  is  very  much  cheaper  to  sow  clover  and  let 
these  bacteria  gather  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  in  this  way  give  a  fresh  supply 
to  the  soil. 

Instead  of  harvesting  the  second  crop  of  clover  many  farmers  plow  it  under. 
Why?  Because  the  roots  and  stems  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil  for  other  crops,  and 
because  the  leaves  of  the  clover  decay  quickly  and  enrich  the  soil  by  a  fresh  supply 
of  humus.  Have  the  pupils  look  for  other  clovers  in  the  neighborhood  and  bring  in 


135 

specimens  for  study.  Sweet  clover  and  white  clover  will  be  found  in  abundance  and 
in  some  places  alike  clover  and  alfalfa.  Note  the  characteristics  common  to  these 
plants.  Examine  the  roots  to  determine  whether  or  not  all  have  nodules.  Study  the 
stem  of  the  white  clover.  Note  how  the  plant  spreads  over  an  area.  Why  is  it  a  good 
lawn  plant  ? 

All  of  these  plants  are  called  legumes.  They  have  certain  characteristics  that 
are  common  to  all.  Beans  and  peas  belong  to  the  same  group  of  plants  known  as 
Leguminosae  or  legumes.  They  have  teen  given  this  name  because  they  all  have 
their  seeds  in  a  flat  pod  which  is  called  a  legume.  All  of  the  legumes  have  the 
bacteria  nodules  on  their  roots  so  any  of  them  are  good  plants  to  supply  nitrogen 
to  the  soil.  In  some  places  soy  beans  and  cow  peas  are  planted  for  this  purpose. 

VACATION  STUDIES. — Birds. — Where  do  quails  nest?  How  do  young  quail 
try  to  protect  themselves?  (Some  boy  may  see  the  little  creatures  lie  flat  upon  the 
ground  keeping  perfectly  motionless  and  resembling  so  closely  brown  leaves  or  clods 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  see  them.)  Do  quail  stay  with  us  during  winter?  What 
do  they  eat  when  insects  are  all  gone?  Like  many  other  winter  birds  they  feed  upon 
weed  seeds  and  waste  grain.  Sometimes  the  snow  covers  up  all  food  and  then  the  birds 
suffer  and  many  die.  What  may  be  done  to  save  these  useful  birds?  It  will  pay 
every  farmer  to  feed  the  birds  during  such  seasons.  Every  farmer  should  also  see 
to  it  that  no  quail  is  shot  upon  his  premises  during  the  hunting  season. 

Watch  for  the  nesting  places  of  the  meadow  lark  and  brown  thrashers.  Try 
to  find  out  what  these  birds  feed  upon.  Start  a  bird  calendar  and  try  to  keep  it 
during  vacation.  The  following  is  a  simple  calendar: 


Name 


Where  «een 


Chief  colors 


When  seen          Nesting          Last  seen 


FLOWERS. — Encourage  the  girls  to  plant  some  flowers  and  vegetables  to  display 
at  the  Harvest  Festival  in  September.  A  simple  record  of  the  work  done  and  the 
results  gained  should  be  kept. 

CLOVER. — Study  the  flowers.  Are  they  arranged  singly  or  in  clusters?  De- 
cide whether  or  not  the  clover  head  is  a  single  flower  or  a  number  of  flowers.  Find 
the  parts  of  one  flower;  compare  with  a  bean  or  pea  blossom.  How  many  flowers  do 
you  find  in  one  head?  Which  flowers  open  first,  those  at  the  outside  of  the  head  or 
those  at  the  center?  Examine  a  number  before  deciding.  Examine  some  faded 
heads  for  the  seeds.  Does  one  little  flower  produce  more  than  one  seed?  When  is 
the  clover  cut  for  hay?  How  does  it  compare  with  other  kinds  of  hay  as  to  value? 
(The  stem  and  leaves  contain  more  nutritious  food  than  almost  any  other  hay  with 
the  exception  of  alfalfa.)  Watch  for  the  beginning  of  growth  of  the  second  crop. 
Does  the  second  crop  produce  flowers  and  seeds?  When  is  this  crop  harvested?  How 
are  the  seeds  obtained  ? 

Watch  the  bumble  bees  on  the  clover.  Can  you  see  where  the  bees  put  their 
tongues  to  get  the  nectar?  Where  is  the  nectar  secreted  in  the  flower?  If  you 
remove  one  of  the  small  flowers  and  put  the  tip  of  the  corolla  tub  in  your  mouth 
vou  can  taste  the  sweet  nectar. 


136 


LESSON  PLANS  FOR  EIGHTH  YEAR 
SEPTEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  SEPTEMBER. — Report  vacation  studies  and  experiments.  Plan 
out  of  school  work  as  suggested  for  seventh  year.  Farm  calendar.  A  simple  survey 
of  the  industries  of  the  district.  Make  a  list  of  the  crops  raised  in  the  neighborhood 
during  the  year.  Which  ones  have  been  harvested?  Has  more  than  one  crop  been 
grown  in  one  -field?  Acreage  and  yield  of  different  crops.  Each  pupil  make  map  of 
home  farm,  showing  fieldls. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES. — Simple  study  of  much  rooms,  how  fungi  differ  from  seed 
plants.  Experiments  in  growing  and  destroying  molds  and  bacteria;  sterilization; 
treatment  with  formalin;  smut,  rust,  blights,  rots,  scabs.  How  combat  these?  Fungi 
that  attack  insects;  find  flies  and  grasshoppers  that  have  succumbed  to  fungous  dis- 
eases. Simple  experiments.  Collection  for  school. 

VACATION  PROJECTS. — In  districts  where  the  outline  for  the  seventh  grade 
was  carried  out  last  year  simple,  informal  reports  of  the  vacation  experiences  may 
come  first.  Encourage  the  boys  and  girls  to  tell  about  their  work.  What  projects  they 
undertook,  what  difficulties  they  encountered,  what  success  they  had,  what  is  the 
present  status  of  their  experiments,  what  products  they  have  grown  that  may  be  shown 
at  the  Harvest  Home  festival  the  latter  part  of  the  month. 

Incidentally  it  may  be  stated  that  no  formal  work  can  give  better  training  in 
language  than  these  reports  if  given  in  a  clear,  direct,  natural  manner.  Therefore,  if 
time  is  lacking  for  the  nature  study  it  may  very  well  be  correlated  with  language. 

PLANS  FOR  OUT-OF-SCHOOL  WfORK. — Plans  for  work  outside  of  school  hours, 
may  mean  several  things  and  if  undertaken  should  begin  early  in  the  term.  It  may 
mean  a  completion  of  the  projects  undertaken  in  the  spring,  the  harvesting,  storing, 
or  marketing  products  of  the  farm  or  garden.  If  chicken  raising  was  undertaken  it 
may  mean  caring  for  the  flock.  The  pupils  will  keep  a  simple  record  of  the  work 
done  and  the  time  spent.  This  will  be  handed  in  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

The  out-of -school  work  may  mean  that  a  child  will  choose  a  special  piece  of 
work  to  be  done  at  home,  as  the  feeding  of  the  pigs,  the  care  of  the  chickens,  milking, 
setting  the  table,  etc.,  for  which  credit  will  be  given  at  school.  This  plan  requires 
the  most  tactful  management  and  perfect  cooperation  between  the  parents  and  the 
school.  Only  the  earnest,  sympathetic  teacher  who  knows  and  understands  her  pa- 
trons and  in  spirit  is  one  of  them  should  attempt  this. 

The  third  kind  of  work  is  for  the  boys  who  do  not  enter  school  until  after  corn 
husking.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  these  boys  should  not  combine  observation 
and  study  with  their  home  work.  In  fact  with  a  little  help  they  may  be  able  to 
cover  much  of  the  work  done  by  the  children  in  the  school.  If  they  are  interested  a 
club  may  be  organized,  if  one  does  not  already  exist.  By  meeting  once  a  week  to 
discuss  observations  made,  and  to  receive  directions  for  further  work  the  boys  may 
be  able  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  school  work  and  even  to  contribute  something  to  it 
in  the  way  of  specimens  and  individual  observations. 

SURVEY  OF  NEIGHBORHOOD  INDUSTRIES. — This  topic  may  be  carried  out 
with  profit  in  any  part  of  the  State.  It  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for  origin- 
ality on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  It  should  consist  of  a  real  survey  of  the  district  con- 
ducted by  the  individual  members  of  the  class.  Its  purpose  is  to  help  the  children  ap- 
preciate the  scope  of  the  work  done  in  the  district,  the  relation  of  the  industries  to 
each  other  and  to  the  outside  world,  and  the  facilities  for  educational  and  social  ad- 
vantages, f  It  should  include :  The  number  and  size  of  the  farms  in  the  district.  The 
number  or  farmers  living  on  their  own  farms.  The  number  of  tenants.  The  kinds 
of  farming  practiced,  stock  or  grain  or  a  combination.  Kinds  of  crops  with  acreage 
of  each — average  yield  per  acre — number  and  breeds  of  domestic  animals — other  in- 
dustries than  simple  crop  or  stock  farming;  fruit-growing,  dairying,  truck  garden- 
ing— means  of  transportation,  hard  roads,  dragged  roads,  old  style  earth  roads,  rail- 
roads— the  nearest  market — facilities  for  social  and  educational  life  of  the  commun- 
ity, clubs,  the  Grange,  church,  school,  etc.  The  survey  should  include  also  statements 


137 

of  the  present  condition  of  the  fields  and  the  work  that  is  in  progress.  What  crops 
have  been  harvested?  What  has  been  done  with  the  stubble  fields — with  the  straw? 
Does  the  same  soil  produce  more  than  one  crop  during  the  season? 

The  children  should  be  given  several  weeks  to  work  up  the  survey.  A  simple  plat 
of  the  district  drawn  to  a  scale  showing  the  farms  and  indicating  with  colored  crayon 
different  crops  or  other  interesting  features  will  add  much  to  the  value  of  the  work. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  district  each  pupil  will  be  interested  to  draw 
on  a  larger  scale  his  own  home  showing  the  location  of  the  buildings  and  roads,  and 
indicating  in  color,  the  orchard,  garden,  and  different  field  crops. 

While  the  survey  will  be  of  value  to  the'  pupils  it  will  be  equally  valuable  to  the 
teacher.  It  will  help  her  more  than  anything  else  to  see  and  appreciate  the  industries 
and  interests  of  the  people  and  to  meet  them  upon  the  plane  of  those  interests. 

MUSHKOOMS  AND  TOADSTOOLS.— Have  the  children  bring  in  a  number  of 
mushrooms.  They  will  probably  call  them  toadstools.  The  common  meadow  mush- 
room is  usually  abundant  in  the  fall,  so  are  a  number  of  cluster  mushrooms  that  grow 
at  the  base  of  old  stumps.  Where  are  the  mushrooms  found  growing?  (By  discussion 
it  will  be  brought  out  that  they  are  found  in  the  woods,  around  stumps,  on  trees,  in 
meadows,  around  barns,  etc.) 

How  many  parts  do  you  find  in  your  mushroom?  The  stem  is  called  the  stipe, 
the  umbrella-like  part,  the  pileus.  You  may  find  small  whitish  threads  attached  to  the 
end  of  the  stipe.  These  make  up  the  mycelium  which  penetrates  the  ground  or  stump 
or  whatever  the  mushroom  may  be  growing  upon.  What  do  you  find  on  the  under 
side  of  a  pileus?  Those  leaflike  flaps  are  called  gills.  What  are  they  for?  To 
answer  this  question  break  the  stem  out  of  the  pileus  and  then  lay  the  pileus  on  a 
piece  of  white  paper  with  the  gills  downward.  Leave  it  for  twenty-four  hours.  What 
do  you  find  on  the  paper?  Eub  your  fingers  over  it.  This  fine  powder  is  composed 
of  tiny  bodies  like  pollen  grains,  each  of  which  is  called  a  spore.  These  spores  are  for 
the  production  of  new  plants.  Name  some  of  the  ways  in  which  a  mushroom  differs 
from  the  other  plants  you  have  been  studying.  They  lack  leaves,  green  color,  flowers 
and  seed. 

MOLD. — About  a  week  before  time  for  this  lesson  place  moist  pieces  of  stale 
bread  on  a  piece  of  pasteboard  and  turn  tumblers  over  them.  Have  pupils  examine 
the  bread.  What  is  on  it?  On  what  part  of  the  bread  is  the  mold  most  abundant? 
Look  closely  at  the  mold.  How  many  distinct  parts  can  you  see?  (The  mass  of 
threads  is  the  mycelium.)  Do  any  of  the  threads  penetrate  the  bread?  Those 
standing  out  from  the  mycelium  with  tiny  white  or  black  dots  on  the  end  are  spore- 
bearers  and  the  dots  are  spore  cases.  Touch  gently  with  a  pin  a  group  of  these  black 
spore  cases.  What  happens?  The  cases  burst  open  and  a  shower  of  minute  spores 
come  out.  What  are  the  spores  for?  Let  us  plant  some  of  these  spores  and  see  if 
they  will  grow. 

Moisten  a  fresh  piece  of  bread  and  with  a  small  stick  or  end  of  a  match  transfer 
some  of  the  spores  to  this.  Plant  them  in  rows.  Turn  a  tumbler  over  the  bread 
and  examine  after  forty-eight  hours.  Have  the  spores  germinated?  Let  the  bread 
.stand  to  find  out  how  long  before  this  new  crop  of  mold  has  ripe  spores  on  it. 

Where  did  the  mold  come  from  on  the  first  piece  of  bread?  The  spores  must 
have  been  on  it  when  it  was  moistened  and  put  under  the  tumbler.  They  must  have 
been  in  the  air  and  dropped  upon  the  bread.  Why  does  stale  bread  mold  more 
quickly  than  fresh?  Why  does  canned  fruit  mold?  Can  mold  spores  be  killed? 

Pour  boiling  water  over  a  small  piece  of  stale  bread  and  turn  over  it  a  tumbler 
in  which  you  have  just  dashed  boiling  water.  At  the  side  of  this  place  a  piece  of  the 
same  kind  of  bread  that  is  soaked  in  cold  water  and  has  a  cold  tumbler  over  it.  Watch 
for  developments.  Why  do  you  pour  boiling  water  in  fruit  jars  before  canning  fruit? 
Why  should  lids  of  the  jars  be  sterilized  in  the  same  way? 

Soak  a  piece  of  fresh  bread  in  a  half  glass  of  water  in  which  you  have  placed  a 
few  drops  of  formalin.  Plant  spores  on  this  as  you  did  on  the  other  pieces  of  bread. 
Do  these  spores  grow?  Why?  Formalin  or  formaldehyde  kills  the  spores  as  effectively 
as  the  hot  water.  However,  it  cannot  be  used  about  the  house  for  it  is  poison  to 
human  beings.  It  can  be  used,  however,  to  great  advantage  in  killing  spores  that  pro- 
duce fungous  diseases  of  plants. 

What  does  the  mold  feed  upon?  The  mushrooms?  They  obtain  food  from  the 
substances  upon  which  they  grow.  What  part  of  the  plant"  do  you  think  gets  the 
food?  By  discussion  it  may  be  brought  out  that  the  threadlike  mycelium  which  pene- 


138 

trates  the  substances  obtains  the  food.  All  fungi  such  as  mold  and  mushrooms  that 
live  upon  dead  organic  matter  are  called  saprophytes. 

Do  all  fungi  live  upon  dead  organic  matter,  as  bread,  stumps,  etc.? 

Find  some  ears  of  corn  covered  with  smut.  Examine  this.  What  is  it  com- 
posed of?  The  mass  of  black  sooty  material  is  chiefly  made  of  spores.  What  is  the 
effect  of  this  fungus  upon  the  ear  of  corn?  The  smut  plants  have  really  penetrated 
the  young  grains  of  corn,  and  have  lived  upon  these  grains.  Has  this  fungus  many 
or  few  spores?  Much  corn  is  destroyed  by  this  disease.  What  other  grains  are  at- 
tacked by  smut? 

If  you  have  a  few  heads  of  oats  or  wheat  with  smut  on  them,  make  a  study  of 
these.  Can  you  find  any  spores  in  these?  What  will  every  spore  produce?  A  new 
plant,  like  all  the  other  fungi  studied,  the  spore  forms  the  mycelium.  It  usually  be- 
gins its  growth  when  the  oat  plants  are  about  an  inch  high.  The  threads  of  the  fungus 
feed  upon  the  growing  oats,  sometimes  so  weakening  the  plant  that  it  dies.  Most 
of  the  plants  live,  but  are  dwarfed.  About  the  time  the  heads  appear  the  smut  is 
ready  to  produce  its  spores  so  it  sends  the  ends  of  the  threads  with  the  spore  cases 
on  them  outside  the  oats  grains.  You  find  the  heads  black  with  spores  instead  of 
having  grains.  Do  you  think  any  of  the  oat  seeds  are  likely  to  have  spores  on 
them  if  they  have  grown  in  a  field  where  some  of  the  heads  have  been  affected  with 
smut?  Can  you  think  of  anything  that  might  be  done  to  kill  these  smut  spores? 

Formaldehyde  will  kill  these  spores  just  as  readily  as  it  did  the  mold  spores. 
The  following  recipe  is  used  by  many  farmers:  Put  one  pint  of  forty  per  cent  for- 
maldehyde in  thirty-six  gallons  of  water,  soak  the  seeds  in  this  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  and  then  spread  out  to  dry.  This  is  sufficient  for  about  forty  bushels  of 
seed.  The  seeds  are  more  easily  handled  by  putting  them  into  a  gunny  sack,  and 
putting  this  into  the  solution.  Wheat  smut  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Examine  spots  of  rust  on  wheat  or  oats.  Can  you  find  any  spores  here?  Are 
these  fungous  diseases?  This  is  another  fungus  that  feeds  on  the  inside  of  the  leaf 
or  stem  till  it  is  ready  to  produce  spores  when  it  sends  the  hypha3  to  the  surface  and 
the  spores  are  produced  on  the  outside.  The  ripe  reddish-brown  spores  on  the  wheat 
look  very  much  like  iron  rust,  hence  the  name.  Have  the  children  name  other  fun- 
gous disease,  as  pear  and  apple  blight,  peach  rot  and  potato  scab. 

The  children  will  be  interested  to  know  that  plant  breeders  have  been  experi- 
menting for  some  time  with  various  varieties  of  wheat  and  have  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing several  varieties  that  resist  fungous  diseases  altogether. 

OCTOBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  OCTOBER— FAEM  CALENDAR.— Discuss  last  month's  worlc 
and  plan  to  keep  a  calendar  for  each  month. 

FORAGE  CROPS. — Grasses,  those  ~best  adapted  for  meadows,  for  pastures, 
varieties  found  in  neighborhood.  Use  of  leguminous  plants  for  forage.  Other  forage 
crops — Jcafir  corn,  sorghum,  millet,  rape. 

Review  in  this  connection  the  corn  study  of  seventh  year. 

PLANT  SOCIETIES. — Simple  study  of  the  living  together  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. A  meadow  or  pasture  group,  a  corn  field  group,  a  forest  group,  etc. 

THE  FARM  CALENDAR. — The  farm  calendar  with  a  discussion  of  the  farm 
work  during  September  should  be  given  at  least  one  period  at  the  beginning  of  the 
month.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  have  the  pupils  compare  their  last  year's  calendars 
with  the  present  one,  noting  variations  and  changes  in  the  work  of  the  two  years. 

FORAGE  CROPS. — There  is  no  part  of  the  state  where  the,  study  of  forage 
crops  may  not  be  taken  up  with  profit.  The  first  lesson  should  be  given  over  to  a 
discussion  of  what  is  meant  by  forage.  The  term  originally  meant  ' '  Food, ' '  and  was 
probably  first  applied  to  pasturage  when  animals  were  dependent  upon  wild  plants 
for  their  food.  Now  it  means  any  form  of  herbage  either  green  or  air  cured,  used  as 
food  for  domestic  animals.  It  consists  usually  of  the  leaves,  stems  and  sometimes  the 
seeds  of  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  plants,  and  includes  pastures,  meadows,  silage, 
fodder  and  soiling. 

Have  the  pupils  discuss  the  above  terms  with  reference  to  the  methods  employed  in 
using  the  plants  for  food.  In  pastures  the  animals  help  themselves  to  growing  plants. 
MeadoAvs  are  cut,  the  plants  air-dried,  cured,  and  stored  for  future  feeding.  Fodder 


139 

is  a  term  commonly  applied  to  corn  or  sorghum,  that  is  cut  before  maturing  and  piled 
up  to  dry  and  cure  slowly.  Silage  is  food  cut  green  and  preserved  in  a  succulent  state 
by  packing  closely  in  a  silo.  Soiling  is  a  term  used  for  green  plants  of  any  kind  that 
are  cut  and  carried  to  the  animals,  such  as  green  fodder  or  cow-peas. 

Forage  crops  may  be  grouped  also  with  reference  to  plant  species  as  follows : 

1.  The  small  grasses,  as  timothy  and  blue  grass. 

2.  The  large  grasses,  as  corn  and  sorghum. 

3.  The  legumes,  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  cowpeas. 

4.  Boot  crops,  as  turnips  and  beets. 

5.  Miscellaneous,  as  rape,  cabbage,  and  pumpkins. 

Have  the  pupils  make  a  list  of  the  different  forage  crops  raised  on  the  home 
farms.  Indicate  the  acreage  of  each.  Does  anyone  in  the  neighborhood  practice 
soiling?  This  means  raising  a  crop  that  may  be  cut  and  fed  in  the  green  state  to 
stock.  Who  raises  summer  forage,  or  catch  crops?  Winter  or  cover  crops? 

THE  SMALL  GE ASSES. — Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  small  grasses 
grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Assign  for  out-of-door  observation  at  least  two  kinds 
of  grass,  one  pasture  and  one  meadow.  Blue  grass  is  the  most  familiar  pasture  grass 
in  Illinois.  Note  the  relation  of  the  plant  to  the  soil.  Is  it  hard  or  easy  to  identify 
single  plants?  Do  the  blades  or  leaves  spread  out  on  the  ground  or  stand  erect? 
Dig  down  and  find  the  parts  of  the  plants  in  the  soil.  What  kind  of  roots  do  you  find  ? 
Thread-like  roots  of  this  sort  are  called  fibrous  roots.  Look  among  the  fine  roots  for 
a  thicker,  harder  thread  that  is  made  up  of  joints.  If  it  is  fresh,  it  is  white  in 
color  and  has  at  the  end  a  bud  from  which  new  leaves  are  growing.  This  long,  slen- 
der body  is  called  a  root-stock.  It  is  an  underground  stem  and  not  a  true  root.  If 
you  look  closely  you  will  find  that  it  has  thin  scale  leaves  at  every  joint.  What  direc- 
tion does  the  root-stock  grow?  Can  you  see  how  it  enables  the  blue  grass  to  spread 
and  cover  the  ground  so  closely?  In  dry  or  very  cold  weather,  when  the  parts  above 
the  ground  are  dead,  the  root-stock  with  its  new  buds,  remains  alive.  Just  as  soon 
as  conditions  are  right,  that  is,  when  the  rains  come,  new  blades  spring  up,  and  we 
soon  have  a  fresh  crop  of  grass.  It  is  this  characteristic  that  makes  blue  grass  one  of 
the  best  pasture  plants.  Is  it  an  annual  or  a  perennial?  If  the  children  are  in  doubt, 
tell  them  to  wait  and  settle  the  question  by  their  own  observation.  They  will  be  able 
to  decide  before  spring  that  blue  grass  is  a  perennial,  and  that  in  sheltered  places 
or  when  covered  with  snow,  it  remains  green  all  winter. 

Compare  timothy  or  orchard  grass  with  blue  grass.  Note  the  different  methods 
of  growth,  the  larger  blades,  and  the  lack  of  root-stocks.  Do  you  think  timothy  or 
orchard  grass  could  ever  make  as  dense  a  sod  or  turf  as  blue  grass?  Why? 

Obtain,  if  possible,  heads  of  different  grasses  and  make  a  comparative  study  of 
these.  It  will  add  interest  to  have  the  pupils  make  a  collection  of  the  different 
kinds  of  heads  and  also  of  the  seeds  of  the  different  grasses.  These  may  be  collected 
into  a  pretty  booklet. 

Common  grasses  grown  in  Illinois,  besides  the  ones  mentioned  above,  are  mea- 
dow fescue  and  red  top.  The  latter  is  grown  largely  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state.  It  is  used  both  as  pasture  and  meadow  grass.  Millet  is  a  coarse  grass  used 
in  many  parts  of  the  state  as  a  summer  grass,  that  is,  it  is  sown  at  late  as  July  and 
manures  a  crop  by  early  fall.  It  is  grown  in  many  places  as  a  catch  crop  on  areas 
from  which  early  potatoes  or  some  other  crops  have  been  harvested. 

Procure  some  millet  plants  for  study.  Note  their  root  system,  the  height  of  the 
plants,  the  length  and  width  of  the  leaves,  and  the  large  heads.  Remove  some  of  the 
seeds  from  the  heads  and  compare  with  those  of  other  grasses.  If  several  farmers  in 
the  district  raise  millet,  obtain  plants  of  different  kinds  and  compare  as  to  height, 
softness  of  the  leaves,  and  size  of  the  heads.  There  are  a  number  of  different  species 
grown  in  the  state.  Among  these  are  the  common  small  millet,  German,  and  Hun- 
garian millet.  Discuss  the  proper  time  to  cut  millet  for  hay.  Xo  kind  of  millet 
should  be  allowed  to  reach  maturity  before  cutting,  but  should  be  harvested  soon  after 
blossoming.  Do  you  see  why?  If  allowed  to  grow  too  long  the  stem  and  leaf 
fibers  become  so  hard  and  tough  that  they  are  not  good  for  feeding  stock. 

THE  LAEGE  GRASSES. — Large  plants  belonging  to  the  grass  family  used 
for  forage  in  Illinois,  are  Indian  corn,  Kafir  corn  and  sorghum.  Review  briefly  the 
study  of  the  corn  plant  as  given  in  October  of  the  Seventh  year.  Compare  Kafir  corn 
and  sorghum  with  Indian  corn.  Note  the  resemblances  as  shown  in  the  stalks,  leaves 
and  roots.  Note  differences.  The  main  difference  between  Indian  corn  and  the  other 


140 

two  is  that  Indian  corn  has  two  flower-clusters,  the  tassel  or  staminate  flowers  which 
bear  the  pollen  and  the  shoot  or  pistillate  flowers  which  bear  the  seeds.  Sorghum  and 
Kafir  corn  have  both  stamens  and  pistils  in  one  large  flowering  head  at  the  top  of  the 
stalk. 

Kafir  corn  is  not  used  largely  in  this  state,  but  sorghum  is  coming  into  great 
favor  as  a  forage  crop,  especially  for  cattle.  It  contains  more  food  properties  than 
many  other  forage  plants.  It  may  be  pastured  when  a  few  feet  high  and  will  con- 
tinue to  send  out  new  leaves.  It  is  valuable  as  a  soiling  crop  and  also  for  fodders, 
which  may  be  fed  early  in  the  winter.  In  some  places  it  is  mixed  with  corn  for  silage. 

LEGUMES. — Bed  clover  is  the  chief  legume  used  for  forage  in  Illinois.  Alfalfa 
and  to  some  extent  cow  peas  and  soy  beans  are  coming  into  use.  These  plants  are 
called  legumes  because  the  seeds  are  formed  in  a  flat  pod  known  to  botanists  as  a 
legume.  All  common  beans  and  peas  are  legumes.  Clover  pods  are  small  but  are 
as  perfect  as  those  of  the  larger  plants. 

Review  the  study  of  clover  as  given  in  the  spring  term  of  the  seventh  year. 
How  many  farmers  in  the  district  have  clover  on  their  farms?  What  was  done  with 
the  first  crop  this  year?  The  second  crop?  How  much  seed  will  an  acre  of  clover 
yield?  What  is  it  worth  per  bushel?  Study  root  tubercules  on  the  small  roots.  Are 
they  are  numerous  as  they  were  in  the  spring? 

If  there  is  any  alfalfa  growing  in  the  neighborhood  make  a  detailed  study  of 
the  plants,  comparing  with  the  red  clover.  Study  the  common  sweet  clover  found  by 
the  roadside.  This  is  a  near  relative  to  alfalfa  and  is  quite  similar  in  its  char- 
acteristics. 

COWPEAS  AND  SOYBEANS. — Are  there  any  cowpeas  or  soybeans  raised  in 
the  district?  Are  they  used  for  pasturage  or  fed  green?  These  two  legumes  are  com- 
paratively new  in  our  state  and  yet  are  considered  quite  worth  while  by  many  farmers. 
Both  are  native  of  Asia.  Cowpeas  were  introduced  in  this  country  years  ago,  and 
have  become  important  farm  crops  in  the  southern  states.  The  soybean  was  intro- 
duced more  recently,  probably  not  more  than  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  better  adapted 
to  a  cold  climate  than  cowpeas.  It  grows  rapidly,  maturing  in  from  two  to  two  and 
a  half  months.  Both  plants  are  considered  excellent  for  the  soil.  They  may  be  planted 
rather  late  in  the  spring  or  even  in  early  summer.  Some  farmers  plant  them  between 
the  rows  of  corn  after  the  last  cultivation.  The  leaves  and  upper  stem  may  be  used 
for  soiling  or  green  fodder,  while  the  lower  stems  and  roots  are  plowed  into  the  soil. 
If  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  soil  is  desired,  the  entire  plant  may  be  plowed  under. 
Soybeans  are  excellent  to  mix  with  corn  for  silage.  If  no  one  in  the  district  raises 
these  plants,  send  to  a  seed  company  for  a  few  seeds,  and  plan  to  have  some  of  the 
boys  plant  a  small  plot  of  each  next  year. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FOEAGE  PLANTS.— Have  the  pupils  make  a  list  of  any 
other  forage  plants  not  named  above,  that  are  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  In  some 
localities  root  crops  are  grown  for  feeding  cattle  and  sheep.  If  these  are  used  in 
your  district,  have  the  pupils  make  a  collection  for  study.  The  most  common  are 
turnips,  rutabaga  and  beets.  Compare  the  different  kinds  as  to  size,  weight,  shape, 
etc.  An  interesting  experiment  may  be  performed  to  determine  the  amount  of  water 
in  roots.  Peel  one  of  each  kind,  a  turnip  or  beet,  weigh  and  place  in  a  warm  oven 
or  in  the  sun,  and  weigh  again  after  twenty-four  hours.  Continue  this  for  several  days 
and  you  will  be  able  to  estimate  the  amount  of  water  that  the  root  contains.  While 
roots  are  not  especially  high  in  food  value,  they  are  excellent,  because  of  their  suc- 
culence, to  feed  with  dry  grain  foods  during  the  winter  months. 

Rape'  is  another  crop  used  to  some  extent  in  this  state.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a 
soiling  crop  or  as  pasturage  for  pigs  and  sheep. 

Rye  is  another  common  forage  plant.  This  is  frequently  planted  in  the  fall, 
making  a  good  cover  crop  for  the  winter,  and  may  be  used  as  pasture  or  for  soiling 
in  the  spring. 

Spend  at  least  one  lesson  discussing  the  value  of  forage  crops.  The  pupils  should 
realize  that  much  more  attention  has  been  given  to  forage  crops  during  the  last  ten 
years  than  ever  before.  This  is  because  farmers  are  giving  more  attention  to  the 
comparative  value  of  different  crops.  The  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture  tells  us  that 
forage  crops  stand  second  in  acreage  in  the  list  of  cultivated  crops  of  the  United 
States. 

One  reason  for  the  new  interest  in  forage  crops  is  the  knowledge  that  some  sue- 


141 

culent  foods  are  better  for  all  cattle  during  the  entire  year  than  dry,  concentrated 
food.  This  is  especially  true  of  dairy  cattle.  The  pupils  will  be  interested  to  know 
that  in  some  of  the  large  sanitary  dairies  in  Xew  Jersey  the  cows  are  nofr  fed  in 
pastures  at  all,  but  during  the  summer  are  fed  on  soiling  crops.  The  dairymen  claim 
that  the  greater  amount  of  milk  obtained  more  than  pays  for  the  extra  labor  re- 
quired to  feed  in  this  way. 

A  second  reason  that  more  attention  is  given  to  forage  crops  is  the  growing  de- 
mand for  a  crop  rotation  that  will  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  has  been 
proven  beyond  question  that  forage  crops  leave  the  soil  in  a  much  better  condition 
than  they  find  it.  Of  course  this  means  when  treated  according  to  improved  methods 
of  farming. 

PLANTS  SOCIETIES. — The  last  topic  suggested  for  the  month  will  make  a 
most  interesting  series  of  lessons  anywhere.  Few  boys  and  girls  have  ever  thought 
of  the  fields,  meadows  or  woodlands  as  communities  of  living  beings  feeding  and  work- 
ing together,  some  helping,  some  hindering,  each  other  in  their  struggle  for  existence. 
Each  locality  differing  from  another,  in  position,  slope,  amount  of  moisture  and  kind 
of  soil,  has  its  own  special  society  of  plants  and  animals.  This  is  true  in  wild  na- 
ture, as  well  as  in  cultivated  fields.  The  only  difference  is  that  in  the  latter,  man 
comes  in  as  an  important  factor,  to  help  decide  just  what  plants  or  animals  shall  keep 
possession.  But  he  cannot  completely  control  the  inhabitants.  In  spite  of  him, 
certain  plants  and  animals  enter,  settle  down,  and  become  a  part  of  the  community. 

An  interesting  plan  to  follow  in  assigning  the  work  is  to  have  each  member 
of  the  class  work  up  a  different  society.  One  may  choose  a  cornfield  society,  another 
a  pasture,  still  others  the  meadow,  vacant  lots,  garden,  woodland,  swamp,  or  pond. 
The  same  outline  with  a  little  modification  will  answer  for  all.  For  example,  make 
a  list  of  all  the  different  plants  you  find  in  the  corn  fields.  Here  is  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  review  the  weeds  we  studied  last  year.  Where  are  the  weeds  growing 
most  luxuriantly?  How  close  to  the  corn  do  they  grow?  Are  any  climbing  the 
stalks?  Any  trailing  on  the  ground?  How  do  they  compare  with  the  corn  as  to 
height?  Which  plants  have  succeeded  best,  corn  or  weeds?  Is  there  any  part  of  the 
field  where  the  weeds  seem  to  have  the  advantage?  Can  you  account  for  this?  Are 
there  any  lower  plant  forms,  such  as  smut  or  mosses,  in  the  cornfield? 

What  animals  do  you  find  in  the  corn  fields?  Xote  different  kinds  of  insects  and 
spiders.  Where  are  they  living?  Determine  as  well  as  you  can  whether  they  are 
feeding  upon  the  corn  or  weeds,  or  upon  each  other.  Do  you  find  any  birds  visiting 
this  corn  field  society?  What  are  they  doing?  Do  you  find  any  evidences  of  small 
mammals  such  as  field  mice  or  ground  squirrels? 

It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  the  weeds  and  insects  found  in  a  pasture 
society  with  those  of  the  corn  field,  or  garden.  Determine  which  has  the  greater 
number  of  annuals.  Of  perennials.  How  do  you  account  for  the  greater  number  of 
perennials  in  the  pasture? 

The  woodland  society  is  of  special  interest,  because  as  a  rule  man  has  little  to 
do  in  determining  the  plants  that  have  possession.  The  most  important  plants  are 
the  trees.  How  many  different  kinds  can  you  find?  Is  one  kind  scattered  throughout, 
or  do  you  find  numbers  of  the  same  species  standing  close  together?  Which  are  the 
largest  trees  ?  Do  they  show  a  series  of  heights  or  stories  ?  Are  the  youngest  trees  the 
same  species  as  the  oldest  ones?  If  all  the  oldest  trees  were  removed,  would  most 
of  those  that  are  left  represent  the  same  species  or  would  there  be  quite  a  different 
kind  of  forest .' 

Below  the  trees  are  the  shrubs  and  vines.  List  those  and  compare  with  each 
other  as  you  did  the  trees.  In  the  same  way  study  the  herbs  and  then  the  plants 
growing  very  close  to  the  ground,  such  as  mushrooms  and  mosses. 

The  animal  life  in  the  woodland  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  corn  fields  or 
pasture.  Xote  the  different  kinds  of  spiders  and  insects  that  live  in  the  shade  of 
the  trees.  List  as  many  of  the  birds  as  you  know  and  notice  their  homes  among  the 
trees  and  shrubs.  In  the  same  way  list  the  mammals,  as  squirrels,  chipmunks,  etc. 

Teachers  who  wish  to  use  the  Xature-Study  Agriculture  as  a  basis  for  some  of 
the  composition  work  will  find  the  pupils  interested  in  writing  compositions  or  giving 
oral  reports  on  the  following: 

The  Forage  Crops  of  Our  District. 

The  Value  of  Forage  Crops. 

The  Plants  and  Animals  That  Live  Together  in  a  Corn  Field. 

A  Woodland  Communitv. 


142 
NOVEMBER 

OlTTLINE  FOB  NOVEMBER. — Corn  judging  with  score  card.  Corn  exhibit  and 
Contest. 

Dairy  industry;  review  types  of  dairy  cattle;  feeding  for  milk;  the  silo;  hous- 
ing and  care  of  dairy  cow;  profit  in  humane  treatment.  Separator;  use  and  care  of 
milk.  Detection  of  "robber  cotvs"  by  use  of  scales  and  Babcock  test.  Butter  mak- 
ing; cheese. 

Dairy  cow  contrasted  with  beef  type;  examples  of  different  breeds;  history  of  a 
few;  scrapbook  of  pictures  cut  from  farm  journals.  Report  on  cattle  owned  by  fam- 
ilies represented  in  school. 

CORN  DAY 

The  first  week  of  the  month  should  be  given  largely  to  getting  ready  for  Corn 
Day  on  Friday.  Lessons  on  corn  judging  as  suggested  for  October  of  the  Seventh 
year  should  be  reviewed  and  some  actual  work  in  corn  judging  carried  on.  This 
will  prove  quite  as  interesting  as  it  was  last  year.  It  will  give  an  opportunity  to 
find  out  whether  the  pupils  are  any  more  skillful  in  judging  a  good  ear  of  corn  than 
they  were  a  year  ago.  Make  arrangements  for  a  program  to  which  the  patrons  of  the 
school  are  invited.  As  far  as  possible  the  topics  of  the  program  should  cluster  around 
the  term's  work  in  agriculture.  The  following  are  suggestive  topics: 

What  I  have  found  out  about  fungous  diseases. 

A  talk  on  different  kinds  of  forage  crops  raised  in  the  district. 

Corn  as  a  forage  plant. 

Corn  raising  in  the  home  district. 

DAIRY  INDUSTRIES. — LESSON  2. — Begin  with  an  informal  discussion  of 
the  cows  of  the  neighborhood.  The  number  of  cows  kept  in  each  family  and  the 
purpose  of  keeping  cows.  Some  may  keep  cows  just  to  provide  enough  milk  and 
butter  for  the  home.  Others  may  keep  dairy  cows  for  the  purpose  of  selling  milk 
and  butter,  while  others  may  keep  them  for  the  purpose  of  raising  beef  cattle.  Who 
knows  what  different  breeds  of  cattle  are  kept  in  the  neighborhood?  There  are  two 
distinct  types  of  cows,  dairy  and  beef.  Does  any  one  in  the  class  know  what  some 
of  the  best  beef  breeds  are? 

There  are  several  different  breeds  found  in  America.  The  Shorthorns  are  prob- 
ably the  most  widely  raised.  They  are  of  different  colors,  some  red,  some  red  and 
white,  some  roan,  and  some  almost  pure  white.  There  are  probably  more  red  ones 
than  any  other  color. 

Who  knows  the  Herefords?  They  are  becoming  more  and  more  common  in  many 
parts  of  our  state.  They  are  the  cattle  that  we  often  see  in  pastures  with  white 
faces,  red  bodies,  and  white  legs.  Who  has  ever  seen  any  black  cattle  that  are  raised 
for  beef.  We  have  two  kinds  of  black  cattle,  Aberdeen-Angus  and  the  Galloways. 
The  Angus  are  heavier  than  the  Galloways.  During  the  winter  the  coats  of  the  lat- 
ter become  very  long  and  shaggy.  The  Angus  are  much  more  common  in  Illinois  than 
the  Galloways.  Have  the  children  make  observations  and  inquiries  as  to  whether  any 
of  these  breeds  are  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood.  Look  in  the  farm  papers  for 
pictures  of  various  types  of  beef  cattle.  An  interesting  scrap  book  or  chart  may  be 
made  by  pasting  these  pictures  and  carefully  labeling  them. 

LESSON  3. — What  dairy  breeds  are  represented  in  the  district?  How  many 
have  Jerseys?  How  can  you  tell  a  Jersey  from  other  dairy  breeds?  (The  color  is 
usually  a  light  fawn  and  the  nose  is  always  black.)  How  do  Jerseys  compare  with 
other  cows  in  the  neighborhood  as  to  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter  that  they  pro- 
duce? Does  any  one  know  the  Guernseys?  These  resemble  the  Jerseys  somewhat  in 
color.  Usually,  however,  they  are  a  little  larger  and  have  a  flesh  colored  nose  instead 
of  a  black  one.  Another  breed  of  dairy  cows  is  becoming  quite  common  in  Illinois 
and  that  is  the  Holstein-Friesian.  These  are  black  and  white  in  color.  Are  they 
larger  or  smaller  than  the  Jerseys?  Do  they  give  more  or  less  milk?  (They  are 
considerably  larger  than  any  of  the  other  dairy  cows  and  are  noted  for  the  amount 
of  milk  they  give.  As  a  rule  the  milk  does  not  contain  as  much  butter  fat  as  that 
of  the  Jerseys  or  Guernseys,  but  where  people  wish  to  keep  cows  for  the  purpose 
of  selling  milk  this  breed  is  considered  very  desirable.)  Do  you  know  whether  any  of 
the  cattle  in  the  neighborhood  are  kept  both  to  give  milk  and  to  raise  beef  cattle? 
This  is  done  to  a  certain  extent  in  many  places  in  the  state,  both  with  the  Holstein- 


143 

Friesian  and  the  Shorthorns.  Who  have,  instead  of  any  of  the  breeds  named  above, 
common  red  cows  sometimes  spotted  a  little  with  white  but  mostly  red  ?  This  cow 
is  a  dairy  strain  of  the  Shorthorn  cattle.  A  few  of  these  are  excellent,  some  are 
fairly  good,  but  many  are  not  worth  keeping  as  far  as  their  dairy  qualities  are  con- 
cerned. 

LESSON  4. — Where  are  cows  kept  during  the  summer?  Winter?  Let  the  chil- 
dren report  on  the  practice  in  the  neighborhood.  Has  any  one  barns  built  especially 
for  the  dairy  cows?  Are  the  cows  kept  here  during  the  day  or  only  at  night?  How 
are  they  fastened  in?  Do  you  suppose  it  pays  to  give  the  cow  a  good  shelter  and 
plenty  of  food?  (Tests  have  been  made  that  prove  the  fact  that  cows  that  are  treated 
kindly,  kept  in  sheltered  quarters,  and  fed  well  will  repay  their  owners  by  giving  much 
larger  quantities  of  milk.)  What  do  cows  eat  in  the  summer?  Is  there  always  enough 
grass  in  the  pastures  to  afford  sufficient  food?  What  weather  conditions  often  make 
it  necessary  to  feed  cattle  other  things  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  early 
fall?  What  are  the  cows  fed  in  winter  time?  Let  the  children  name  various  kinds 
of  feeds  used,  different  kinds  of  hay,  etc.  Are  there  any  who  allow  cattle  to  feed  in 
the  corn  fields  after  the  corn  is  husked?  What  do  they  find  to  eat  here?  Who  feed 
silage,  fodder,  roots,  such  as  turnips  and  beets;  ground  feed,  or  oil  cake?  Are  cows 
that  are  kept  for  milk  fed  the  same  kind  of  food  as  cattle  that  are  fattened  for  beef? 
(Some  recent  experiments  seem  to  show  conclusively  that  dairy  cows  do  best  on  a  feed 
in  which  there  is  some  green  material  rather  than  all  dry.  For  this  reason  many  farm- 
ers are  constructing  silos  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  corn  and  other  plants 
in  a  green  condition. 

LESSON  5. — Who  has  ever  seen  a  silo?  What  shape  was  it?  Some  silos  are 
round,  some  rectangular.  Some  are  as  tall  or  taller  than  the  barn.  Others  are  not 
more  than  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high.  Corn  is  put  into  the  silo  while  it  is  still  green. 
The  stalks  are  cut  close  to  the  ground.  They  are  then  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  or 
sometimes  shredded.  These  pieces  are  put  into  the  silo  and  packed  down  as  firmly  as 
possible.  The  whole  mass  then  ferments  and  heats  and  keeps  in  a  good  condition.  If 
it  is  not  packed  firmly  the  air  enters  and  causes  it  to  mold  and  decay.  Corn  in  the 
silo  is  called  silage.  Cattle,  and  in  fact,  all  stock  are  very  fond  of  silage.  Many  ex- 
periments have  been  performed  which  prove  that  silage  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and 
best  foods  for  dairy  cattle. 

MILK. — LESSON  6. — Of  course,  the  purpose  of  keeping  dairy  cows  is  that  they 
may  provide  good  milk.  Who  knows  what  milk  is  composed  of?  (It  is  made  of 
several  different  constituents.  We  know  by  tasting  it  that  it  is  sweet.  That  means  that 
it  has  sugar  in  it.  We  call  this  milk  sugar.  Another  of  the  important  ingredients  is 
fat.  This  is  known  as  butter  fat.  There  is  also  some  proteid  in  it  and  a  very  small 
amount  of  minerals.  All  the  rest  of  the  milk,  which  after  all  in  the  main  part,  is 
water.  You  will  see  then,  that  milk  contains  all  the  food  which  your  physiology  tells 
you  is  necessary  for  the  growth  and  development  of  human  beings.) 

Place  some  fresh  milk  in  a  bottle  or  tumbler.  Allow  it  to  stand  a  few  hours. 
What  happens?  Why  does  the  cream  come  to  the  top?  What  does  a  cork  do  when 
you  put  it  in  water?  Why  does  it  float  upon  the  water?  Cream  comes  to  the  top 
of  milk  for  the  same  reason,  that  is,  because  it  is  lighter  than  the  milk. 

LESSONS  7  AND  8. — Have  the  children  discuss  the  methods  used  in  their  homes 
for  separating  cream  from  milk.  Some  people  use  crocks  or  shallow  pans.  Fresh 
milk  is  put  into  these  and  allowed  to  stand.  The  cream  rises  to  the  top  and  is  then 
skimmed  off  by  a  flat  skimmer.  This  is  the  old  fashioned  method  but  it  is  still  used 
by  many  people.  It  is  by  far  the  poorest  method  known.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
at  least  one-fourth  of  the  butter  fat  is  left  in  the  skimmed  milk  when  this  method 
is  used.  Does  any  one  in  the  neighborhood  use  a  deep  can?  Some  of  these  are  twenty 
inches  deep.  The  milk  is  placed  in  it  and  is  usually  kept  cool  by  placing  the  can  in 
water.  Sometimes  the  cream  is  skimmed  off  as  it  is  from  the* shallow  pans  but  a 
better  way  is  to  have  a  faucet  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  When  the  cream  has  risen 
the  faucet  is  turned  and  the  milk  is  drained  off.  Then  the  cream  is  drawn  off  through 
the  faucet.  This  is  considered  a  much  better  method  than  the  shallow  pan.  Much 
more  butter  fat  is  obtained  in  this  way. 

Has  any  one  in  the  neighborhood  a  separator  by  which  the  milk  and  cream  may 
be  separated  at  once  without  allowing  the  milk  to  stand!  The  separator  is  a  ma- 
chine that  is  worked  by  means  of  a  crank.  The  main  part  is  a  cylindrical  bowl  that 


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holds  the  milk  that  revolves  rapidly.  What  happens  to  the  milk  in  this  cylinder? 
Tie  a  piece  of  chalk  or  some  other  object  to  the  end  of  a  string  about  eighteen  inches 
in  length.  Let  some  child  take  hold  of  the  end  of  the  string  and  whirl  it  rapidly. 
Can  you  feel  the  string  pulling?  Let  go  while  you  are  whirling.  What  does  the 
string  and  weight  do?  The  force  that  made  the  string  pull  on  your  hand  and  caused 
it  to  fly  in  a  straight  line  when  you  let  go  is  called  centrifugal  force.  It  is  the 
force  that  causes  revolving  bodies  everywhere  to  move  away  from  the  center.  Did 
you  ever  notice  how  mud  and  water  fly  from  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel?  Since  the 
milk  is  heavier  than  the  cream  which  will  fly  farther  away  from  the  revolving  center? 
The  children  will  readily  see  that  since  the  milk  is  heavier  it  will  fly  toward  the  out- 
side of  the  cylinder  while  the  cream  is  forced  toward  the  inside.  There  is  an  opening 
toward  the  outside  thru  which  the  milk  pours  out  in  a  stream  and  an  opening  toward 
the  inside  thru  which  the  cream  pours  forth. 

LESSON  9. — Does  any  one  in  the  district  send  milk  directly  to  the  creamery 
instead  of  separating  the  cream  from  the  milk  at  home?  How  is  this  done?  Let 
the  children  who  know  tell  about  it.  In  many  places  large  cans  are  furnished  by 
creamery  companies.  A  man  comes  around  once  each  day,  collects  the  cans  of  milk, 
and  takes  them  to  the  creamery.  The  cream  and  the  milk  are  at  once  separated  and 
usually  the  milk  is  put  back  into  the  cans  and  taken  back  to  the  farms.  What  is 
done  with  the  cream  in  the  creamery?  What  is  done  with  the  cream  that  is  kept  in 
the  homes?  In  both  places  butter  is  made  from  it.  Do  you  churn  the  cream  while 
it  is  sweet  or  wait  until  it  is  sour?  Why?  (Butter  may  be  made  from  sweet  cream  but 
it  lacks  the  real  butter  flavor  and  besides  it  does  not  keep  well.)  The  cream,  then, 
is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  sours  or  ripens.  What  makes  it  sour?  (Souring  is  caused 
by  some  living  organisms  called  bacteria.  They  get  into  the  milk  or  cream  through 
the  air  or  utensils  used  about  the  milk.  In  creameries  where  it  is  not  desirable  to  al- 
low the  cream  to  stand  until  it  sours,  a  little  cream  that  has  in  it  a  number  of  bac- 
teria is  placed  in  the  cream  which  causes  it  to  sour  in  a  short  time.  This  is  called  a 
starter.)  What  different  kinds  of  churns  do  the  children  know  about?  What  is 
the  purpose  of  churning?  (The  cream  is  agitated  violently  enough  to  force  the  fat 
particles  together.  They  strike  against  each  other  and  adhere,  the  particles  grow- 
ing larger  and  larger.  It  is  not  best  to  continue  churning  until  the  particles  are  all 
joined  together  in  one  great  mass.  Churning  should  be  stopped  when  the  particles 
are  not  larger  than  a  pea.  If  the  masses  are  too  large  it  is  much  harder  to  remove 
all  the  milk  from  the  butter. 

CAEE  OF  MILK. — LESSON  10. — Since  bacteria  cause  milk  to  sour  and  since 
these  little  creatures  are  abundant  everywhere,  what  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
too  many  of  these  from  getting  into  the  milk?  Let  the  children  discuss  freely  the 
various  methods  to  use.  Wfro  has  ever  seen  a  covered  milk  pail?  This  is  made  with 
an  opening  just  large  enough  to  allow  the  milker  to  get  the  milk  into  the  pail  and 
yet  vast  amounts  of  dust,  dirt,  and  hair  from  the  cow  will  be  kept  out.  Should  one 
be  careful  about  having  clean  hands  when  milking  or  taking  care  of  milk?  What 
should  be  done  with  all  the  utensils  used  in  connection  with  the  milk? 

LESSON  11. — The  children  may  try  a  number  of  interesting  experiments  in  this 
connection.  Place  a  few  spoonfuls  of  milk  in  a  tumbler  or  cup  in  which  some  old 
milk  has  been  left  standing  from  the  day  before.  In  another  place  the  same  amount 
of  milk,  but  first  pour  boiling  water  into  the  cup,  rinsing  it  well  and  putting  the  milk 
in  while  it  is  still  warm.  Tie  a  double  piece  of  cheese  cloth  over  each  glass.  Let 
these  two  stand  side  by  side  for  twenty-four  hours  and  note  the  difference.  Another 
experiment  may  be  tried.  Place  the  same  amount  of  milk  into  two  cups.  Stand 
them  in  a  warm  place.  Cover  one  but  leave  the  other  uncovered.  Note  any  differ- 
ence after  twenty-four  hours.  This  experiment  will  help  the  children  to  see  what 
sterilizing  milk  vessels  will  do.  What  do  you  mean  by  sterilizing?  It  is  some 
method  used  to  kill  bacteria  and  the  best  method  to  use  in  connection  with  milk  is 
to  pour  boiling  water  into  everything  used  with  the  milk. 

TESTING  MILK  FOE  BUTTEE  FAT.— LESSON  12.— Do  cows  differ  at  all 
in  the  amount  of  butter  fat  in  their  milk?  Agricultural  stations  have  made  very 
interesting  experiments  and  reports  concerning  the  difference  in  cows.  Two  cows  may 
be  fed  on  exactly  the  same  kind  of  food  and  be  given  exactly  the  same  care,  but  one 
may  produce  nearly  twice  as  much  butter  fat  as  the  other.  A  cow  that  does  not 
produce  enough  butter  fat  to  pay  for  her  keep  is  sometimes  called  a  ' '  robber  cow. ' ' 
How  can  you  tell  how  much  butter  fat  a  cow  will  produce?  (The  surest  way  is  to 


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test  the  milk  with  a  Babcock  tester.)  Has  anyone  in  the  neighborhood  one  of  these 
testers!  It  will  pay  any  school  district  to  keep  one  of  these  machines  to  test  milk  of 
different  cows.  Or  two  or  three  farmers  could  have  one  in  partnership.  Directions 
for  testing  come  with  each  machine.  If  there  is  none  in  the  neighborhood  it  will 
pay  the  teacher  to  make  an  effort  to  have  one  put  into  the  school.  A  small  tester 
may  be  obtained  for  about  five  dollars,  a  large  one  that  holds  six  testing  bottles  for 
thirteen  dollars. 

LESSON  13. — One  lesson  may  be  given  to  discussing  the  uses  of  milk  aside  from 
that  of  making  butter: — Various  uses  about  the  home  in  cooking;  the  making  of 
cheese,  of  condensed  milk,  and  malted  milk.  Who  knows  how  cottage  cheese  is  made? 
The  children  may  be  able  to  tell  that  sour  milk  after  it  has  become  thick  is  slowly 
heated  and  the  curd  separated  from  the  water.  This  curd  consists  chiefly  of  the 
casein  and  albumen,  which  is  the  proteid  part  of  the  milk. 

The  cheese  which  we  buy  in  the  market  is  made  from  sweet  milk.  Eennet  is 
put  into  it.  This  curdles  the  milk  and  changes  it  chemically.  It  is  then  heated  and 
afterwards  pressed  and  allowed  to  stand  a  number  of  weeks  to  ripen.  What  do  we 
mean  by  ripening  cheese?  It  is  ripened  by  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  that  work  in  it 
and  give  it  its  flavor.  Perhaps  some  of  the  children  may  have  visited  a  cheese  fac- 
tory and  will  be  able  to  tell  just  how  cheese  is  made. 

DECEMBER 

OUTLINE  FOR  DECEMBER. — Study  of  horse  and  horsema-nship  ;  different 
breeds  of  horses  in  neighborhood.  Care  of  farm  horses  during  the.  winter.  Similar 
studies  of  sheep  and  pigs. 

Public  health  and  sanitation  studies,  germ  diseases;  demonstrate  methods  of 
disinfecting;  children  assist  in  disinfecting  schoolroom;  work  of  the  health  officer; 
pure  food;  pure  milk;  pure  drinking  water. 

LESSON  1. — The  first  lesson  should  be  a  discussion  of  the  November  farm  cal- 
endars. Is  all  of  the  fall  work  completed?  Have  the  slwrtening  of  the  days  and 
cold  weather  affected  farm  activities  to  any  extent?  Make  plans  for  a  December 
calendar. 

LESSONS  2  AJSTD  3. — Horses.  Have  an  informal  discussion  of  the  various  horses 
in  the  neighborhood.  How  valuable  are  they  on  the  farm?  Do  you  think  all  the 
horses  in  the  neighborhood  are  the  same  kind  or  breed  ?  State  some  of  the  differences 
as  to  size,  shape,  color  that  you  have  noticed.  These  differences  indicate  to  some 
extent  the  difference  in  breed,  although  the  ordinary  farm  horse  is  rather  a  mixture 
of  breeds  than  a  distinct  one.  There  are  at  least  three  different  breeds  of  horses 
known,  the  draft  horse,  the  coach  or  carriage  horse,  and  the  roadster  or  trotter.  The 
draft  horse  is  heavy,  has  rather  short,  heavy  legs,  a  short  thick  neck  and  broad  deep 
chest  and  shoulders.  There  are  several  breeds  of  draft  horses.  The  one  most  common 
in  Illinois,  and,  in  fact,  in  the  Middle  West  is  the  Percheron.  This  breed  came  orig- 
inally from  France.  Most  of  the  horses  are  gray,  many  a  beautiful  mottled  or  iron 
gray.  A  great  many  of  our  common  gray  horses  are  part  Percheron.  Some  Per- 
cherons,  however,  are  black  or  dark  brown.  In  England  the  carriage  horse  is  a  dis- 
tinct breed  and  is  known  as  the  coach  horse.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States 
we  find  more  attention  given  to  the  coach  or  true  carriage  horse  than  here  in  the 
Middle  West.  This  horse  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  draft,  has  a  long  arched  neck, 
and  is  usually  of  graceful  appearance.  The  third  breed,  the  roadster,  is  a  slender, 
tall  horse,  with  long  head  and  neck,  rather  thin  and  light.  Are  there  any  horses  in 
the  neighborhood  that  are  pure-bred  roadsters,  any  that  are  draft,  or  carriage  horses? 

LESSON  4. — Observe  the  different  horses  in  the  neighborhood  and  note  whether 
any  of  them  seem  to  come  up  to  the  description  of  these  various  breeds.  Look  in 
the  farm  papers  and  magazines  for  pictures  of  horses  of  different  kinds  and  start 
a  chart  of  these  as  you  did  of  the  different  breeds  of  cattle.  What  are  the  uses 
of  the  draft  horses?  (The  largest  draft  horses  are  used  in  large  cities  to  draw  im- 
mense loads  of  various  kinds.)  Do  you  know  how  much  a  heavy  draft  horse  weighs? 
(The  heaviest  draft  horses  weigh  over  2,000  pounds,  medium  drafts  from  1,600  to 
1,700  pounds,  and  light  draft  1,500  to  1,600  pounds.)  Do  these  horses  move  rapidly 
or  slowly?  What  is  the  use  of  the  roadster?  The  name  of  course  suggests  the  use. 
This  horse  must  be  able  to  travel  rapidly  and  endure  the  strain  of  travel  for  a  long 


146 

time.  Why  should  a  roadster  be  much  lighter  in  weight  than  a  draft  or  work  horse  ? 
Do  you  know  of  any  true  carriage  horses  in  your  neighborhood?  How  do  they  com- 
pare with  the  heavy  work  horses  and  the  roadsters? 

LESSON  5. — Make  a  list  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  work  that  a  farm  horse 
does.  Is  there  any  work  done  by  horses  that  used  to  be  done  by  man?  Inquire  of 
your  parents  in  regard  to  this  matter.  Perhaps  some  of  them  will  remember  when 
corn  was  planted  by  hand  and  all  small  grain  sown  broadcast  by  hand.  Have  gasoline, 
or  steam  engines  in  any  way  taken  the  place  of  horse  power  in  your  neighborhood? 
(Mention  threshers,  shellers,  automobiles,  etc.)  (While  you  do  not  remember,  your 
parents  will,  that  not  many  years  ago  all  threshing  machines  and  shellers  wrere  run 
by  horse  power,) 

LESSONS  6  AND  7. — Care  of  Horses.  One  of  the  first  things  to  consider  in 
caring  for  a  horse  is  its  food.  Make  a  list  of  the  various  foods  eaten  by  horses. 
List  the  various  kinds  of  hay  used  in  the  neighborhood.  How  many  are  feeding 
timothy  alone?  Clover  alone?  Timothy  and  clover  mixed?  Alfalfa?  Straw?  Who 
feed  oats?  Who  corn?  Does  hay  contain  as  much  food  as  the  grains.  (You 
remember  in  your  study  of  physiology  that  two  very  important  classes  of  foods  are 
carbohydrates  and  proteids..)  Grains  contain  a  high  percent  of  carbohydrates  and 
not  much  proteid.  You  may  remember,  also,  that  carbohydrates  produce  fat  and  heat. 
Do  you  think  of  any  good  reason  why  more  foods  containing  carbohydrates  should 
be  fed  to  horses  in  winter  than  in  summer?  Which  kind  of  food  should  we  feed  to 
animals  that  we  are  trying  to  fatten?  Do  you  feed  your  working  horses  on  exactly  the 
same  kind  of  food  as  horses  that  are  running  in  the  pasture  or  standing  in  the  stable? 
Why  do  working  horses  need  a  different  kind  of  food  and  different  amounts  than  idle 
horses?  (When  a  horse  is  working  he  is  using  up  muscle  just  as  boys  do  when  they 
exercise.  Therefore  a  working  horse  should  be  fed  more  foods  than  contain  proteids 
because  these  foods  help  to  build  up  muscle).  Do  you  feed  your  horses  regularly? 
When  do  you  feed  them?  How  many  times  each  day?  Is  it  of  any  importance  to 
observe  regularity  in  the  feeding  of  horses?  Why?  Horses  more  than  any  other  kind 
of  domestic  animal  seem  to  like  order  and  regularity  in  their  feeding.  They  seem 
to  know  when  feeding  time  has  arrived  and  become  nervous  if  they  are  not  fed. 
If  you  expect  a  horse  to  keep  in  a  healthy  condition  you  must  see  to  it  that  he  gets 
his  meals  at  regular  times  each  day.  When  should  a  working  horse  be  given  its 
heaviest  meal?  (The  heavy  meal  should  be  given  at  night  after  the  day's  work  is 
done.  There  is  a  good  reason  for  this.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small  compared 
with  that  of  other  large  animals,  hence  when  horses  are  fed  in  the  evening  they  have 
plenty  of  time  to  chew  and  digest  their  feed.)  A  rule  given  us  by  those  who  have  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  horse  is: — For  a  working  horse  feed  one-fourth  the  daily  ration 
in  the  morning,  one  hour  before  going  to  work,  one-fourth  at  noon,  and  one-half 
in  the  evening. 

Do  you  observe  the  same  care  in  watering  your  horses  as  you  do  in  feeding  them  ? 
Most  experts  agree  that  horses  should  be  watered  before  meals  rather  than  after- 
wards, the  only  exception  being,  perhaps,  with  the  morning  meal.  What  precaution 
should  be  taken  about  watering  horses  when  they  are  very  warm?  Many  a  good 
horse  has  been  ruined,  sometimes  killed,  by  allowing  it  to  drink  a  large  quantity  of 
water  when  it  was  very  warm. 

LESSON  8. — There  should  lie  a  discussion  of  some  other  points  to  consider  in 
caring  for  horses.  Let  the  children  suggest  points  worth  while.  No  doubt  they  will 
suggest  among  others,  currying  and  rubbing.  When  should  this  be  done?  How  many 
are  in  the  habit  of  currying  and  rubbing  horses  in  the  evening  after  the  harness  is 
removed?  How  many  do  this  only  in  the  morning?  How  many  both  evening  and 
morning?  The  last  is  by  far  the  best  plan.  Can  you  think  of  a  good  reason  for 
currying  and  rubbing  horses  in  the  evening?  Someone  has  said  that  the  horses  will 
rest  so  much  better  when  this  is  done  that  he  will  really  be  worth  more  as  a  worker 
the  next  day.  What  part  of  the  horses  requires  the  most  cleaning  and  rubbing?  (The 
legs  should  have  the  most  attention  although  they  are  often  slighted.)  Horses  whose 
legs  are  carefully  cleaned  are  not  so  liable  to  develop  diseases  that  many  horses  are 
subject  to. 

Another  thing  to  consider  is  blanketing  the  horse  in  winter.  This  should  be  done 
especially  when  he  has  been  traveling  some  distance  and  is  warm  and  perspiring. 

THE  HARNESS. — LESSON  9. — What  is  the  purpose  of  the  harness?  By  dis- 
cussion the  children  will  probably  bring  out  the  facts  that  harness  has  two  purposes. 


147 

One  is  to  enable  the  horse  to  do  its  work  and  the  other  to  enable  the  driver  to  control 
the  horse.  Have  the  boys  name  all  the  parts  of  the  harness  they  know.  What  parts  of 
the  harness  help  the  horse  in  pulling  a  load?  (The  horse  uses  its  shoulders  most  in 
moving  a  load,  hence  the  collar,  hames,  and  traces  are  of  the  most  service  in  helping 
it  to  move  the  load  in  any  direction.)  What  part  of  the  harness  enables  the  driver 
to  control  the  horse?  (The  bridle,  bit,  and  lines.) 

Can  you  name  the  parts  of  the  horse  that  are  likely  to  be  injured  by  poorly 
fitting  harness.  (If  a  collar  fits  poorly  it  is  likely  to  result  in  a  sore  neck  or  shoulder. 
If  the  bridle  and  bits  are  not  right,  a  sore  mouth  will  result.  A  crupper  that  does  not 
fit  properly  may  result  in  a  sore  tail.  If  a  horse  is  used  for  riding,  care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  saddle  fits  properly,  otherwise  it  may  result  in  a  sore  back.) 
Spend  some  time  in  discussing  how  harness  should  be  cared  for  in  order  that  it  may 
be  kept  in  good  condition  so  that  it  may  not  become  hard  and  stiff.  (It  should,  of 
course,  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  occasionally  oiled.) 

LESSON  10. — It  may  be  well  to  have  the  boys  name  all  the  different  parts  of 
the  horse  that  they  know,  such  as  the  poll,  withers,  knee  joint,  fetlock  joint,  etc. 
A  good  picture,  showing  parts  of  the  horse  may  be  found  in  almost  any  book  on 
agriculture. 

What  are  some  of  the  different  steps  that  horses  take?  Among  others  will 
be  named  trotting,  galloping,  pacing,  walking,  and  running. 

TKAINING  HOUSES.— LESSON  11.— One  lesson  may  well  be  given  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  how  horses  are  trained  and  broken  for  use.  How  many  of  the  boys  have  ever 
had  anything  to  do  with  the  breaking  of  colts?  There  are  a  few  points  that  should 
always  be  remembered  in  the  training  of  horses.  The  most  important  is  that  horses 
have  a  remarkable  memory.  They  rarely  forget  a  trick  or  anything  that  they  have  once 
encountered.  If  they  become  frightened  at  a  piece  of  paper  in  the  road  and  run  away 
they  will  be  very  likely  to  be  frightened  again  the  next  time  they  see  a  piece  of 
paper.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  important  that  horses  should  be  trained  carefully 
so  that  they  may  have  nothing  to  remember  that  will  be  an  injury  either  to  them- 
selves or  their  owner.  A  person  in  breaking  a  horse,  therefore,  should  be  firm  yet 
kind  and  quiet.  Horses  should  be  trained  to  stand  still  while  being  harnessed.  They 
should  be  taught  from  the  first  to  stop  when  the  signal  ' '  whoa ' '  is  given,  to  move 
backward,  when  the  signal  ' '  back ' '  is  given,  etc.  A  horse  properly  trained  will  not 
start  forward  until  he  is  given  the  word  or  signal  to  start.  Have  you  ever  seen  horses 
that  began  to  move  the  moment  the  driver  took  the  lines  in  his  hand  instead  of  wait- 
ing to  be  told  to  go? 

Every  farm  boy  should  learn  how  to  manage  a  horse  and  do  it  right.  If  pos- 
sible have  the  pupils  at  this  time  read  and  discuss  the  article  by  Dean  Davenport 
entitled  ' f  Some  Points  of  Good  Horsemanship. ' '  This  is  found  in  a  little  book  en- 
titled ' '  Twelve  Studies  of  Farm  Animals, ' '  published  by  Parker,  of  Taylorville. 

LESSON  12. — One  lesson  should  be  given  to  the  history  of  the  horse.  This 
may  be  found  in  any  good  cyclopedia.  It  is  also  found  in  the  little  book  suggested 
in  the  last  lesson.  The  children  should  at  least  know  that  horses  have  been  known 
since  the  beginning  of  written  history.  Our  ancestors  then  in  pre-historic  times  must 
have  tamed  the  wild  horse.  Horses  were  probably  used  at  first  by  these  people  in 
hunting  other  animals  that  run  rapidly.  The  horse  is  among  the  fleetest  runners 
known  among  animals.  The  horse  in  America  was  brought  from  Europe.  In  Europe 
there  are  at  least  two  distinct  types  of  horses.  A  heavy  horse  that  was  found  in 
England  in  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  the  other  is  the  Arabian  horse  that 
was  brought  into  Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  The  wild  horses  that  we  read 
about  in  America  were  horses  that  escaped  from  the  early  Spanish  explorers  and 
roamed  over  the  prairies  until  they  became  wild. 

LESSON  13. — Let  this  lesson  be  a  summary  of  the  study  of  the  horse.  First 
list  all  the  different  breeds;  Second,  enumerate  all  the  points  to  be  considered  in 
caring  for  horses;  Third,  list  all  the  different  kinds  of  work  that  the  horse  does. 

LESSON  14. — SWINE.  Informal  discussion  of  pigs  raised  in  the  neighborhood. 
How  many  keep  pigs  ?  What  is  the  greatest  number  usually  kept  by  one  farmer  ?  What 
is  the  purpose  of  keeping  them?  How  are  the  hogs  housed  on  the  different  farms? 
Look  in  farm  journals  for  pictures  and  descriptions  of  some  of  the  modern  ap- 
proved hog  houses.  What  are  the  hogs  fed?  Who  are  feeding  hogs  in  connection 


148 

with  cattle?  Who  are  feeding  hogs  alone  for  the  purpose  of  fattening  them  for 
market?  Estimate  about  how  much  corn  one  hog  eats  in  a  day,  a  week,  a  month. 
Leave  this  to  be  reported  after  the  boys  have  had  an  opportunity  to  make  some 
careful  observations  of  the  exact  amount  fed  during  a  day  or  week. 

Discuss  the  habits  and  nature  of  hogs.  How  do  they  drink?  Eat?  What  dif- 
ferent things  will  they  eat?  How  do  they  differ  from  horses  and  cattle  in  this  re- 
spect? What  kind  of  noses  have  they?  How  does  the  snout  help  them  to  procure 
food?  How  deep  can  a  pig  dig  into  the  ground  to  procure  roots,  grub,  worms,  etc.? 
Are  pigs  easily  tamed?  Did  you  ever  have  a  pet  pig?  Did  it  show  any  fondness  for 
you?  Did  it  learn  to  know  you?  Do  you  think  pigs  show  as  much  intelligence  as 
other  domestic  animals?  Name  some  things  you  have  seen  them  do  that  sho\< 
intelligence. 

Do  pigs  deserve  the  reputation  that  they  like  dirt  and  filth?  If  you  give  hogs 
a  chance  to  be  clean  you  will  find  that  they  like  clean  orderly  quarters  quite  as 
much  as  other  animals  do.  Do  you  know  why  they  have  probably  formed  the  habit 
of  wallowing  in  the  mud  during  hot  weather?  They  do  not  perspire  as  horses  do  and 
so  they  must  keep  themselves  cool  by  getting  into  water. 

LESSON  15. — How  many  different  breeds  of  hogs  are  represented  in  the  district  ? 
How  do  the  different  kinds  differ  from  each  other  in  color?  Do  you  know  what 
the  common  breeds  of  black  hogs  are?  (The  Poland  China  and  Berkshire  are  both 
black  with  some  white  spots.  The  Poland  China  has  drooping  ears  while  the  Berk- 
shire has  erect  ears.) 

Of  the  white  hogs  the  Chester  White  is  the  most  common  in  the  Middle  West. 
It  sometimes  has  blue  or  black  spots  on  the  skin  under  the  hair.  The  ears  are  droop- 
ing. The  Victoria  White  is  somewhat  similar  but  has  erect  ears. 

The  common  red  hog  is  the  Duroc  Jersey.  It  seems  to  be  gaining  favor  in  many 
parts  of  Illinois. 

Another  breed  is  the  Hampshire.  This  hog  is  of  medium  size.  It  is  black  with 
some  white.  Usually  the  white  is  a  band  around  the  middle  of  the  body.  In  some 
places  this  hog  is  becoming  a  favorite  because  of  the  high  quality  of  the  meat. 

All  hogs  are  grouped  into  two  great  classes.  These  are  the  lard  or  fat  hogs 
and  bacon  hogs.  The  fat  hog  has  a  thick,  deep  body,  strong  hams,  short  head,  and 
short  legs.  All  of  the  breeds  named  above  are  of  the  fat  hog  type.  The  bacon  hog  is 
not  as  broad  as  the  fat  hog.  It  has  longer  sides,  lighter  hams,  and  longer  legs. 
Throughout  the  corn  belt  the  fat  hog  type  is  raised  almost  exclusively.  Farther  north 
some  of  the  bacon  types  are  raised.  The  bacon  type  is  more  common  in  some 
parts  of  the  east  and  in  Canada  than  the  fat  hog.  Collect  pictures  of  different 
breeds  of  hogs. 

LESSON  16. — HISTOEY  AND  VALUE. — One  lesson  may  be  given  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  history  of  the  domesticated  pig.  It  seems  evident  that  pigs  were  first 
domesticated  in  Asia.  Our  pigs  of  today  probably  originated  from  the  wild  hogs  of 
Europe  and  of  Asia.  Our  American  breeds  were  brought  to  this  country  from  Eng- 
land. However,  different  food  and  climate  with  the  care  of  breeders  have  produced 
a  type  of  hog  that  differs  in  its  characteristics  from  the  original  English  breeds. 

Have  you  read  of  the  wild  razor  back  of  the  South?  These  are  probably  hogs 
that  were  brought  here  by  the  early  settlers.  They  roamed  about  through  the  woods 
feeding  upon  nuts,  roots  and  other  things.  Some  of  them  became  lost  from  their 
owners  and  roamed  about  caring  for  themselves? 

How  valuable  are  hogs  to  the  average  farmer?  Does  it  pay  better  to  feed  corn 
to  pigs  or  to  sell  the  corn?  How  are  hogs  sold,  as  individuals  or  by  weight?  What 
is  a  good  average  weight  of  hogs  ready  for  market?  At  about  what  age  are  pigs  fat- 
tened and  sold?  How  many  hogs  does  it  take  to  make  a  carload? 

LESSONS  17  AND  18. — SHEEP. — How  many  farmers  in  the  community  keep 
sheep?  What  breeds  are  represented?  Ask  at  home  for  information  on  this. 

In  most  parts  of  Illinois  the  Shropshire  is  the  favorite  breed.  What  is  the  chief 
purpose  of  raising  sheep  ?  Sheep  are  raised  for  mutton  and  for  the  wool.  At  present 
in  America  more  attention  is  given  to  producing  sheep  for  mutton  than  for  wool. 
How  many  farmers  sell  most  of  their  lambs  in  the  fall  when  they  are  five  or  six 
months  old?  That  is  a  common  practice  in  many  parts  of  the  state? 

How  are  sheep  cared  for  during  the  summer?  The  winter?  What  do  sheep  eat? 
Do  they  crop  the  grass  any  closer  than  horses  or  cattle  do?  They  eat  many  weeds 
that  other  animals  do  not  touch.  Have  you  known  of  farmers  turning  a  flock  of 
sheep  into  a  field  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  some  noxious  weeds?  Sheep  will 


149 

also  eat  various  kinds  of  twigs  and  small  shrubs.  It  is  often  said  that  sheep  can 
live  and  thrive  in  a  place  where  other  animals  wrould  starve  to  death. 

Some  time  may  well  be  given  to  the  description  of  the  great  sheep  ranches 
in  the  far  west.  Sometimes  there  are  several  thousand  sheep  in  one  flock.  In  the 
summer  the  herders  with  their  faithful  shepherd  dogs  take  the  flocks  to  the  mountains 
and  hill  sides.  Here  the  sheep  pasture  on  the  plants  which  grow  in  these  high  alti- 
tudes. In  the  winter  the  flocks  are  brought  down  to  the  valleys  and  ravines  and 
feed  there. 

Let  some  one  in  the  class  describe  how  sheep  are  sheared.  How  many  pounds  of 
wool  are  obtained  from  one  sheep?  (This  varies  with  the  breeds  and  size  of  the 
sheep.  Merinoes  often  yield  from  twelve  to  twenty  pounds.)  Some  sheep  do  not 
yield  more  than  eight  pounds. 

The  story  of  how  the  wool  is  prepared  for  our  use  in  clothing  is  an  interesting 
one,  especially  for  the  girls. 

HISTORY. — Sheep  have  been  known  since  the  beginning  of  written  history.  In 
Egypt  and  Asia  people  kept  sheep  in  very  early  times.  The  domestic  sheep  probably 
originated  from  the  wild  sheep  of  Asia  and  Europe.  It  is  the  belief  that  European 
breeds  of  sheep  have  for  their  ancestors  a  small  wild  sheep  that  inhabits  the  Isles  of 
Crete  and  Cypress  and  the  mountains  of  Greece.  Our  American  sheep  have  been  in- 
troduced from  Europe.  All  members  of  sheep  tribes  lived  originally  in  the  mountains 
and  highlands.  They  still  retain  their  love  for  climbing  into  almost  inaccessible 
heights.  They  like  also  cool  climate,  high  lands,  and  open  ranges.  They  can  not 
stand  to  be  housed  for  any  length  of  time. 

Look  in  your  farm  journals  for  articles  on  sheep  and  sheep  raising. 

SANITARY  STUDIES. — Since  much  of  the  work  suggested  here  has  already 
been  done  in  the  study  of  the  water  supply,  of  fungi  and  bacteria,  and  the  care  of 
milk,  it  is  suggested  one  lesson  be  devoted  to  a  review  of  what  has  already  been 
studied  in  connection  with  these  topics. 

LESSON  19. — What  are  bacteria?  The  children  should  realize  that  bacteria  are 
small  living  organisms  which  are  really  one-celled  plants.  These  multiply  by  what 
is  known  as  cell  division,  that  is  one  small  cell  divides  into  two.  Each  of  these  di- 
vide again  and  so  on,  until  in  a  short  time  a  great  number  of  bacteria  have  been 
produced  from  one  cell.  The  children  should  realize  also  that  all  bacteria  are  not 
harmful.  When  we  come  to  the  study  of  soil  we  shall  find  that  we  are  largely  de- 
pendent upon  bacteria  for  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  There  are  useful  bacteria  also 
about  the  homes  in  the  production  of  some  of  our  foods.  Then  there  is  another  class 
of  bacteria  that  may  be  considered  as  neither  harmful  nor  useful.  The  class  in  which 
we  are  most  interested  in  these  lessons,  however,  are  those  that  cause  human  diseases. 
How  do  bacteria  cause  diseases?  Bacteria  or  germs  are  taken  into  our  bodies  in  some 
way  and  there  they  grow  and  begin  to  multiply  rapidly.  In  this  process  of  growth 
they  produce  poisons  in  the  body  which  are  called  toxins.  It  is  these  poisons  that 
cause  sickness.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  diseases  that  you  know  that  are  caused  by  germs 
or  bacteria.  (Tuberculosis  or  consumption,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  typhoid  fever, 
tonsilitis,  lockjaw,  pneumonia,  and  colds.)  An  important  point  to  remember  is  that 
none  of  these  diseases  can  exist  unless  the  germs  are  carried  from  some  person  who  is 
ill  with  a  disease  to  another  person.  Since  this  is  true  it  shows  what  great  care  should 
be  exercised  in  nursing  and  caring  for  the  sick.  Everything  then  that  is  used  about  a 
sick  room  should  be  carefully  disinfected  before  it  in  any  way  comes  in  contact 
with  a  well  person. 

LESSON  20. — What  do  we  mean  by  disinfectants  I  A  disinfectant  is  something 
used  for  the  purpose  of  killing  dangerous  bacteria.  There  are  some  simple  disinfec- 
tants that  anyone  may  use.  Carbolic  acid  is  one.  This  should  be  made  into  a  weak 
solution  which  means  about  three  and  one-half  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  to  a  gallon 
of  water.  Clothes  and  vessels  used  in  a  sick  room  should  be  washed  with  this  solu- 
tion. The  burning  of  sulphur  candles  in  a  room  is  a  fairly  good  disinfectant  for  most 
disease  germs.  Of  course  the  sulphur  must  be  burned  when  there  is  no  one  in  the 
room  since  human  beings  cannot  stand  to  breathe  the  fumes  of  sulphur.  Formal- 
dehyde is  used  most  commonly  now  in  disinfecting  buildings  or  rooms.  Especial  di- 
rections are  necessary  if  this  work  is  done  properly.  In  a  great  many  places  school 
buildings  are  disinfected  at  least  once  a  month.  Can  you  see  why  this  is  done? 

LESSON  21. — Besides  the  use  of  disinfectants  there  are  other  ways  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  disease  germs.  Many  bacteria  do  not  like  light,  in  fact  they  are  unable 


150 

to  live  very  long  in  a  bright  sunlight.  Why  then  should  we  see  to  it  that  sunlight 
is  admitted  to  all  of  our  rooms,  if  possible  every  day. 

Hot  water  kills  almost  all  disease  germs.  It  should  be  used  freely  then  in  wash- 
ing dishes,  clothing,  etc.,  brought  from  a  sick  room. 

Look  around  the  school  room  to  see  if  it  is  in  as  sanitary  a  condition  as  you 
can  make  it.  Are  there  piles  of  dust  in  the  corners?  Have  the  walls  been  painted 
or  papered  recently?  Are  there  fly  specks  on  the  windows?  Is  there  dust  in  the  cracks 
of  the  floor?  Is  the  water  pail  uncovered? 

JANUARY 

OUTLINE  FOR  JANUARY. — Simple  tools  and  machinery;  levers;  uses  and 
advantages  of  jackscrews,  pulleys,  etc. 

Machines  used  in  preparing  the  soil  for  planting ;  kinds  of  plows;  harrows;  dif- 
ferent kinds  used  in  the  neighborhood.  Cost  of  different  kinds.  Evolution  of  ma- 
chinery. 

Machines  used  in  cultivating  crops.  Machines  used  in  harvesting  crops.  Care  of 
machinery,  housing,  cleaning,  oiling;  have  children  report  on  where  machines  are 
kept  at  their  own  homes.  Gasoline  engine  and  its  uses. 

LESSON  8.— FARM  MACHINERY.— Have  the  class  make  a  list  of  the  different 
kinds  of  machines  used  on  the  farm  and  about  the  home.  Group  them  as  follows: 

(1)  a  list  of  machines  used  in  the  preparation  of  soil  for  planting  of  various  crops. 

(2)  Machines  used  in  planting  the  various  crops.     (3)   Machines  used  in  cultivating 
the  crop.     (4)  Those  used  in  harvesting  the  crop.     (5)  Machines  used  about  the  barn 
to  make  work  easier.     (6)  Machines  used  in  the  home. 

LESSON  9. — Discuss  the  value  of  machinery  in  general.  Why  do  we  use  ma- 
chines? A  machine  helps  us  to  do  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  work  at  the  least 
cost.  It  saves  time  and  labor.  A  farmer  must  decide  what  machinery  will  pay  him 
best.  The  machinery  that  will  help  him  most  to  reduce  the  cost  of  producing  his 
crop  is  the  kind  that  he  wants.  A  good  illustration  of  how  improvement  in  machinery 
reduces  the  cost  of  production  is  given  in  the  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 
' '  In  1830  it  required  three  hours  of  labor  to  raise  one  bushel  of  wheat.  In  1896  it  re- 
quired but  ten  minutes.  In  1850  the  labor  represented  in  a  bushel  of  corn  was  four 
and  one-half  hours  while  in  1894  it  had  been  reduced  to  forty-one  minutes. 

LESSON  10. — In  the  preparation  of  soil  for  planting  what  is  the  most  important 
implement?  What  kinds  of  plows  are  used  in  the  district?  What  are  the  main  parts 
of  a  plow?  (handles,  beam,  mold-board,  share,  slip-point.) 

The  evolution  of  the  plow  is  interesting.  The  first  plow  was  a  crooked  stick  that 
scratched  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Then  came  the  plow  with  the  wooden  mold  board 
and  iron  and  steel  shares,  then  the  cast  iron  plow  followed  by  the  all-steel  plow.  Now 
we  have  the  riding  sulky,  the  gang,  and  disc  plows.  Ask  your  fathers  to  tell  you 
how  many  more  acres  of  ground  a  man  can  plow  now  in  one  day  than  could  be  done 
when  they  were  boys.  On  some  of  the  large  ranches  in  the  west  large  gang  plows 
drawn  by  traction  engines  can  plow  from  40  to  60  acres  per  day. 

LESSON  11. — Discuss  harrows  in  much  the  same  way  as  you  did  plows  in  the  last 
lesson.  Discuss  the  different  kinds  of  harrows  in  the  district.  What  is  the  use  of  the 
harrow?  Its  main  use  is  to  smooth  and  pulverize  the  soil  after  it  has  been  plowed. 
It  also  helps  to  kill  the  first  crop  of  young  weeds.  Harrows,  like  plows,  have  had  an 
interesting  history.  Little  by  little  they  have  been  improved  to  make  them  more 
effective.  At  first  they  were  all  wood.  Then  the  frame  was  made  of  wood  and  the 
teeth  of  iron.  Now  most  harrows  are  made  entirely  of  steel. 

LESSON  12. — What  machines  are  used  in  sowing  oats,  wheat,  and  other  small 
grains?  How  many  have  drills?  How  wide  a  space  will  a  drill  plant  at  once?  How 
far  apart  are  the  drills?  What  special  arrangement  has  your  drill  for  covering  the 
seeds?  Describe  the  broad  cast  seeders  used  in  the  neighborhood.  Ask  your  father 
to  tell  you  how  grain  was  formerly  sown  broadcast  by  hand. 

How  is  corn  planted?  Ask  your  parents  to  tell  you  about  the  evolution  of  the 
corn  planter.  First  corn  was  planted  by  hand  and  covered  with  a  hoe. 
Then  a  small  hand  dropper  was  invented  that  did  not  prove  very  successful.  The  first 
corn  planter  required  two  persons  to  work  it,  one  to  drive  the  horses  and  the  other  to 


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drop  the  corn.  The  latter  person  sat  on  a  seat  near  the  front  of  the  planter  and 
pulled  a  lever  or  handle  back  and  forth.  Finally  the  present  form  of  planter  with  the 
check  row  was  invented. 

LESSON  13. — Name  the  various  machines  used  in  cultivating  crops.  What 
different  kinds  of  cultivators  are  represented  in  the  district!  These,  like  plows,  have 
been  much  improved.  Your  father  can  tell  you  of  a  time  when  the  single  shovel  culti- 
vator, drawn  by  one  horse  was  used. 

LESSON  14. — Harvesting  machines. — Name  machines  used  in  harvesting  small 
grains.  The  evolution  of  the  harvesting  machine  is  most  interesting.  First  the 
sickle  was  used;  then  the  scythe  and  cradle;  then  the  mowing  machine,  followed  by 
the  self -rake  reaper,  and  finally  the  self-binder  and  the  bundle  carrier.  Ask  your 
parents  to  tell  you  of  a  time  when  a  number  of  men  worked  all  day  in  the  wheat 
and  oats  fields  binding  the  sheaves  by  hand  and  shocking  them.  The  same  work  can 
now  be  done  by  two  men  in  much  less  time. 

If  time  permits  discuss  in  a  similar  manner  the  machinery  used  in  making  and 
stacking  hay. 

LESSON  15. — Name  all  the  parts  of  the  threshing  outfit.  What  special  work 
does  each  part  do.  How  many  men  are  required  to  do  the  work?  How  many  bushels 
of  oats  or  wheat  are  threshed  in  a  day?  Ask  at  home  about  the  way  the  threshing 
machine  has  been  gradually  improved. 

LESSON  16. — Name  and  discuss  the  value  of  the  labor  saving  machines  that 
are  used  in  the  home;  cream  separators,  washing  machines,  sewing  machines, 
churns,  etc. 

LESSON  17. — Machine  power. — All  machines  must  have  power  in  order  to  do 
their  work.  Name  the  various  kinds  of  power  used  to  run  machinery  on  the  farm; 
human  power ;  horse  power ;  steam  power ;  wind  in  running  wind  mills,  and  the  expan- 
sive force  of  gasoline  gas  in  the  gasoline  engine.  Name  all  the  ases  of  the  gasoline 
engines  on  the  farm.  Who  knows  what  makes  the  gasoline  engine  run?  As  you 
know  gasoline  changes  into  vapor  or  gas  quickly  even  at  the  ordinary  temperature 
of  the  room.  The  engine  is  so  arranged  that  an  electric  spark  sets  on  fire  a  small 
quantity  of  the  gasoline  vapor  or  gas.  Do  you  know  what  happens  to  any  gas  when 
it  is  heated?  It  expands,  occupies  a  larger  space.  When  the  gas  from  the  gasoline 
expands  in  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  it  pushes  on  the  piston  and  as  the  piston  moves 
outward  it  turns  the  fly  wheel.  This  burning  or  explosion  of  the  gas  occurs  often 
enough  to  keep  th  eengine  running. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  show  how  one  kind  of  power  on  the  farm  has  gradually 
taken  the  place  of  other1  kinds.  Can  you  name  some  kinds  of  work  that  were  done 
years  ago  by  human  power,  later  by  horse  power,  and  now  by  steam  or  gasoline  gas? 

Most  of  the  wonderful  progress  in  the  improvement  of  farm  machinery  has  taken 
place  within  the  last  fifty  years.  Most  of  the  parents  of  the  children  will  be  able 
to  tell  interesting  stories  of  the  changes  and  improvement  of  farm  machinery.  Send 
to  large  implement  stores  for  catalogues  showing  various  kinds  of  modern  machines. 

LESSON  18. — Care  of  machinery. — Have  the  children  report  where  the  different 
machines  are  kept  during  the  season  when  they  are  not  in  use.  Why  should  they  be 
kept  under  shelter?  What  happens  to  iron  or  steel  when  left  out  in  the  moist  air? 
(Just  why  they  rust  we  shall  learn  by  some  experiments  in  February.)  All  bright 
parts  of  machines  should  be  thoroughly  oiled  or  greased  before  the  machine  is  put 
away.  Before  a  machine  is  taken  out  to  be  used  what  should  be  done?  It  should 
be  gone  over  very  carefully  to  see  that  all  bolts  are  tight  and  every  part  in  good 
repair.  It  is  simply  following  the  old  adage,  ' '  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. ' ' 

Some  one  has  estimated  the  length  of  time  certain  machines  should  last  if  they 
are  well  cared  for.  The  average  life  of  plows,  harrows,  binders  and  mowers  should 
be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years;  of  drills,  seeders,  cultivators,  from  ten  to  twenty 
years. 

How  many  have  simple  tool  shops  somewhere  about  the  place?  It  is  an  excellent 
thing  for  a  boy  to  have  a  tool  shop  and  to  learn  how  to  use  various  tools.  He  should 
have  hammers,  saw,  wrenches,  squares,  brace  and  mit,  bolts;  nuts,  etc.  A  farmer 
can  often  save  much  time  and  money  by  making  simple  repairs  on  his  own  farm 
implements. 

SIMPLE  MACHINES.— The  boys  and  girls  will  be  interested  to  know  that  all 
of  the  machines  that  we  have  discussed  are  constructed  with  reference  to  certain 


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fundamental  physical  laws.  They  will  know  more  about  those  laws  when  they  study 
physics  in  the  high  school.  For  the  present,  however,  they  should  know  that  there 
are  only  six  simple  machines  and  that  all  farm  machinery  simply  shows  various 
combinations  and  modification  of  these.  The  six  simple  machines  are:  The  lever, 
the  pulley,  wheel  and  axle,  the  inclined  plane,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw. 

The  simplest  lever  is  a  long  bar  of  wood  or  metal  that  works  on  a  point  or  pivot. 
When  you  pry  up  a  walk  or  a  stove  with  a  stick  or  crowbar  you  are  using  a  lever. 
A  common  pump  handle  is  a  lever.  Can  you  think  of  other  simple  levers  about  the 
home. 

Have  you  ever  seen  a  simple  pulley  with  a  rope  over  it  and  a  weight  on  one  end? 
Can  you  think  of  a  farm  machine  that  illustrates  the  pulley?  The  hay  derrick  is  a 
good  illustration.  Name  all  the  machines  you  can  think  of  in  which  a  wheel  and 
axles  are  used.  The  screw  is  almost  as  common  as  the  wheel  in  machinery.  Have 
you  ever  seen  a  house  lifted  on  jack  screws?  All  bolts  are  screws.  The  wedge  and 
inclined  plane  are  not  as  common  as  the  other  simple  machines.  The  straw  carrier  in 
the  threshing  machine  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  inclined  plane. 

FEBRUARY 

OUTLINE  FOR  FEBRUAEY. — Food  storage  in  seeds  and  other  parts  of  plants. 
Food  in  the  potato;  in  corn  kernel;  simple  test  for  starch  and  oiL  Other  materials 
found  in  plants,  proteids,  sugar,  fiber  and  cellulose.  Eaw  materials  that  plants  use  in 
making  their  foods;  sources.  Some  idea  of  an  element,  a  chemical  compound,  an  acid, 
alkali.  Elements  needed  by  plants.  Elements  commonly  lacking  in  the  soil.  Some 
ways  of  supplying  these  elements. 

For  these  lessons  a  few  simple  pieces  of  apparatus  are  necessary.  Many  of 
these  may  be  furnished  by  the  pupils.  A  few  glass  tumblers,  some  iron  nails  or  tacks, 
a  little  powdered  sulphur,  a  small  bottle  of  lime  water,  some  baking  soda,  ten  cents* 
worth  of  tincture  of  iodine,  a  few  wide-mouthed  bottles,  vaseline  or  pickle  bottles  will 
do.  A  small  alcohol  lamp  will  aid  in  the  experiment. 

The  purpose  of  these  lessons  on  plant  products  is  to  lead  pupils  to  discover  the 
various  substances  found  in  plants  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  lessons  on  soil  which 
follow. 

LESSON  1. — Have  the  pupil  scrape  as  fine  as  possible  one  or  two  potatoes. 
Place  the  scrapings  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  stir  thoroughly  two  or  three  times,  and  set 
aside  to  settle.  Examine  next  day.  Wthat  do  you  find  in  the  bottom  of  the  tumbler? 
Drain  off  all  the  water  and  potato  pulp,  leaving  nothing  but  the  starchy  looking 
mass  in  the  bottom.  Boil  some  water  over  the  alcohol  lamp  and  pour  a  little  of  this 
into  the  tumbler,  stirring  until  the  starch  thickens.  This  resembles  ordinary  starch 
used  for  clothes.  There  is  a  chemical  test,  however,  that  will  prove  beyond  any  doubt 
that  this  is  starch.  Place  a  small  quantity  of  the  cooked  starch  on  a  plate  or  saucer, 
and  then  put  two  or  three  drops  of  iodine  on  it.  Tincture  of  iodine  that  may  be 
bought  at  any  drug  store  will  serve  the  purpose.  This  may  be  diluted  with  water. 
What  is  the  effect  of  iodine  on  this  substance?  The  blue  color  indicates  the  pres- 
ence of  starch.  The  darker  the  blue  the  more  starch  there  is  present.  Sometimes  it 
is  almost  black.  Place  a  drop  of  iodine  on  a  slice  of  raw  potato.  Does  it  show  as 
much  starch  as  that  which  was  cooked?  The  reason  the  latter  shows  more  starch  is 
that  the  boiling  water  causes  the  walls  of  the  starch  granules  to  burst  open  and  the 
iodine  can  act  more  readily  upon  the  starch. 

LESSON  2. — Pour  a  little  boiling  water  over  some  flour  and  test  it  for  starch; 
over  cornmeal,  oatmeal,  cornstarch,  etc. 

LESSONS  3  AND  4. — Soak  some,  grains  of  corn  for  forty-eight  hours,  or  half 
an  hour  in  hot  water.  Each  pupil  should  have  at  least  two  grains.  At  the  pointed 
end  of  the  grain  find  the  tip  cap.  Remove  this.  With  a  knife  or  pin  remove  the  hull. 
You  will  see  that  the  grain  under  the  hull  is  covered  with  a  thin  smooth  material  that 
with  care  may1  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  This  is  called  horny  gluten.  Now  dig 
out  the  germ*  or  embryo.  This  is  the  dirty  white  oval  shaped  portion  that  fills  up 
the  groove  in  the  soaked  grain.  Split  open  the  remaining  part  of  the  grain.  How 
many  kinds  of  material  are  left?  Place  the  white  granular  material  found  near  the 
top  of  the  grain  in  a  pile.  Add  to  it  the  same  kind  of  material  found  near  the  tip. 
Put  the  hard,  solid  looking  substance  in  another  pile.  You  now  have  six  different  sub- 
stances found  in  your  grain  of  corn.  Test  each  of  these  with  iodine  as  you  did  your 
potato  starch  and  flour.  It  is  better  to  crush  them  as  much  as  possible  before  putting 


153 

on  the  hot  water.  What  part  shows  the  most  starch  f  It  is  probable,  that  the  soft 
granular  part  will  turn  the  darkest  blue.  This  part  is  known  as  crown  starch.  The 
solid  hard  part,  if  thoroughly  boiled,  will  show  some  starch.  This  is  called  horny 
starch.  What  parts  do  not  contain  the  starch?  This  means,  of  course,  that  there 
must  be  some  substance  other  than  starch  in  the  grain  of  corn. 

LESSOX  5. — Remove  some  fresh  embryoes  from  soaked  grains  and  crush  them 
on  a  sheet  of  white  writing  paper.  Hold  the  paper  between  you  and  the  light.  What 
does  this  show?  The  grease  spot  indicates  the  presence  of  oil  or  fat.  Test  other 
seeds  in  this  way  for  oil,  such  as  sunflower,  squash,  pumpkin,  flaxseed,  etc.  Have  the 
pupils  put  a  small  pinch  of  each  of  the  following  on  a  sheet  of  paper :  flour,  cornmeal, 
any  cereal  breakfast  food,  buckwheat,  and  ground  coffee.  Place  the  sheet  in  a  hot 
oven  and  keep  it  there  several  minutes.  Xow  see  whether  the  paper  shows  that  any 
of  these  things  contain  oil.  Have  the  pupils  name  some  plants  whose  seeds  contain 
so  much  oil  that  it  is  extracted  and  used  for  various  commercial  purposes.  (Flax, 
cotton,  castor  oil  bean.) 

LESSOX  6. — Besides  starch  and  oil  plants  contain  other  substances  known  as 
proteids.  In  your  physiology  you  may  have  learned  of  albumen  as  a  kind  of  proteid. 
One  of  the  purest  types  of  proteid  known  is  the  white  of  egg.  Another  substance 
in  plants  is  sugar.  Why  does  a  sweet  potato  taste  sweeter  than  the  common  white 
potato?  Xame  other  plants  that  have  sugar  in  them.  From  what  plants  is  the  sugar 
of  commerce  obtained?  All  starch  found  in  plants  is  changed  into  sugar  before  it 
can  be  absorbed  by  plants  or  animals  for  starch  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  all  sub- 
stances absorbed  by  living  bodies  must  be  dissolved  in  water. 

Is  there  any  part  of  your  corn  grain  that  does  not  seem  to  have  any  of  these 
substances  named  above?  The  hulls  are  made  up  mostly  of  a  substance  called  cellu- 
lose. Cellulose  is  found  in  all  plants,  and  is  the  material  that  gives  strength  and 
firmness  to  the  different  parts.  It  is  found  in  the  cell  walls,  in  fibers  of  stems,  roots, 
and  leaves,  as  well  as  in  fruits  and  seeds.  It  is  harder  and  thicker  in  some  parts  ojf 
plants  than  in  others,  as  in  stems,  husk,  and  roots.  The  fibers  of  cotton,  hemp,  and 
flax  are  made  chiefly  of  cellulose.  Soak  some  common  newspaper  or  writing  paper 
in  water  till  all  the  sizing  is  washed  out.  The  pulp  which  remains  is  almost  pure 
cellulose.  Do  you  know  what  most  of  our  paper  is  made  from?  (From  wood,  that  is 
from  the  cellulose  of  the  woody  stems  of  trees.) 

Where  do  the  plants  get  all  these  substances?  A  discussion  of  this  question 
will  bring  out  the  fact  that  plants  manufacture  them.  All  plants  that  have  green 
leaves  or  the  green  coloring  matter  in  the  young  stems  make  starch,  sugar  and  the 
other  things  that  you  found  in  corn,  potatoes,  etc.  They  may,  therefore,  be  called 
plant  products  or  plant  foods.  It  will  add  interest  to  the  work  to  have  pupils  make  a 
collection  of  the  plant  products.  These  should  be  put  into  bottles  and  carefully 
labeled.  The  following  are  the  products  most  available  for  this  purpose : 

Starch — from  corn  or  potatoes. 

Sugar — ordinary  cane  sugar,  or  maple  sugar. 

Oil — linseed,  cottonseed,  corn  oil. 

Proteids — beans,  peas,  corn  embryo. 

Fiber — cotton,  flax. 

Cellulose — stems  or  hulls  of  corn,  paper  pulp. 

LESSOXS  7  AXD  8. — We  have  said  in  Lesson  6  that  plants  manufacture  certain 
plant  products.  Xow  if  plants  are  factories  what  equipment  must  they  have? 
Machinery,  power,  and  raw  material  out  of  which  to  make  the  starch,  sugar,  etc. 
What  is  the  source  of  this  raw  material? 

By  discussion  it  may  be  brought  out  that  the  environment  of  the  plant  is  air, 
soil,  and  soil  water ;  hence  these  are  the  only  available  sources  from  which  the  plants 
may  obtain  raw  materials  to  make  their  plant  products. 

Just  how  the  plants  procure  the  raw  material,  and  how  they  make  the  foods,  we 
shall  take  up  for  consideration  in  some  later  lessons.  At  present  we  are  concerned 
chiefly  in  finding  out  what  the  materials  are  that  the  plants  use  in  making  foods  and 
plant  tissues. 

We  know  that  we  cannot  find  starch  as  starch  in  the  air  or  water  or  soil.  We 
also  know  that  starch  is  made  up  of  several  substances  which  are  united  to  form  what 
we  call  a  chemical  compound. 

Wliat  is  a  chemical  compound! 

What  is  a  good  example  of  a  chemical  compound?  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
two  things,  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Both  of  these  are  invisible  gases.  Do  either  of 


154 

them  resemble  water?  They  do  not,  yet  chemists  can  separate  water  into  these  two 
gases.  No  one,  however,  can  separate  either  oxygen  or  hydrogen  into  other  substances 
so  we  call  these  elements. 

What  then  is  an  element  ?  It  is  a  substance  that  so  far  as  chemists  know  cannot 
be  separated  into  other  substances.  There  are  only  between  seventy  and  eighty  ele- 
ments known.  Everything  else  in  the  world  is  in  the  form  of  a  compound.  How  are 
compounds  formed?  By  the  chemical  union  of  two  or  more  elements.  Just  to  mix 
the  elements  together  will  not  necessarily  make  a  compound.  They  must  unite  in  defi- 
nite proportions.  In  order  to  know  what  we  mean  by  this  you  must  know  that  every- 
thing in  the  world  is  made  up  of  very  small  particles  called  molecules.  The  molecules 
are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  most  powerful  microscope.  Each  mole- 
cule is  made  up  of  still  smaller  particles  called  atoms.  Now  when  a  chemical  union 
takes  place  a  certain  number  of  atoms  of  one  element  unite  with  a  certain  number  of 
atoms  of  another  element  or  elements  and  make  a  molecule  of  a  new  substance  which 
is  a  compound.  We  know  that  water  is  a  chemical  compound  made  by  the  union  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Two  atoms  of  hydrogen  unite  with  one  atom  of  oxygen  to 
make  water,  hence  we  use  the  symbol  H2O  to  stand  for  water. 

Chemical  unions  are  taking  place  constantly  in  the  world  of  nature.  The  follow- 
ing experiment  will  show  us  one  of  these  unions. 

EXPERIMENT. — Moisten  a  piece  of  iron  (nails  or  tacks)  ;  place  the  wet  iron 
on  a  piece  of  paper  exposed  to  the  air.  Examine  the  next  day.  What  has  happened? 
A  chemical  combination  has  taken  place  between  the  iron  and  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 
In  common  terms  we  call  this  rust.  It  is  iron  oxide,  or  if  hydrogen  has  also  com- 
bined with  the  iron  and  oxygen,  which  is  probable,  it  is  iron  hydroxide.  What  hap- 
pens to  iron  of  any  sort  when  left  exposed  to  air? 

LESSON  9. — Another  simple  experiment  to  show  a  chemical  combination  may 
be  performed.  Place  a  small  piece  of  sulphur  on  a  bright  silver  coin  and  set  the 
sulphur  on  fire.  You  can  do  that  by  putting  a  live  coal  on  the  sulphur.  When  it  has 
burned  look  at  the  coin.  What  has  taken  place?  The  dark  substance  is  silver  sul- 
phide. A  chemical  combination  has  taken  place  between  the  sulphur  and  the  silver. 
Was  all  the  sulphur  used  in  making  the  silver  sulphide?  What  did  you  see  taking 
place  above  the  coin?  Was  anything  uniting  with  the  sulphur  to  form  the  blue  flame 
or  smoke?  The  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  compound  is  sulphur  dioxide.  It  is  a  gas  and 
escaped  into  the  air.  How  did  you  know  it  was  in  the  air?  You  probably  noticed  the 
sulphur  odor  in  the  air. 

Now  in  plants  chemical  combinations  take  place  which  result  in  the  plant  prod- 
ucts we  have  found.  Starch  is  a  combination  of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon.  The 
symbols  for  these  are  O.  H.  and  C  respectively.  Proteid  is  a  combination  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  with  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  often  other  elements. 

LESSON  10. — Where  does  the  plant  get  the  oxygen  that  it  uses  in  making 
starch?  It  probably  gets  it  as  well  as  the  hydrogen,  from  the  water  which  it  gets 
out  of  the  soil.  What  must  first  be  done  with  the  water?  The  plant  must  separate 
the  water  into  its  elements,  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

Where  does  the  plant  get  the  carbon?  This  is  obtained  from  the  air.  How  do 
we  know  that  plants  contain  carbon?  Place  a  small  piece  of  wood  (hard  wood  is 
best)  on  a  piece  of  wire  screen,  or  on  a  tin  pie  plate,  or  in  a  test  tube.  Heat  by 
holding  the  flame  of  a  lamp  under  it  or  by  holding  it  on  a  shovel  over  a  bed  of  hot 
coals  in  the  stove.  When  it  stops  smoking  note  what  is  left.  The  charcoal  is  mostly 
carbon.  What  is  its  color?  Think  of  other  plants  which  you  have  seen  heated  or 
partially  burned,  such  as  leaves,  grass,  cornstalks,  brush.  Do  you  remember  seeing 
any  charcoal  or  carbon? 

We  said  the  plant  gets  its  carbon  out  of  the  air.  Do  you  think  it  gets  it  in  the 
form  in  which  you  see  the  carbon  in  the  charcoal?  It  gets  it  in  the  form  of  a  gas 
called  carbon  dioxide,  C,  O2.  Is  this  gas  an  element  or  a  compound?  How  do  you 
know?  We  know  it  is  a  compound  for  the  symbol  says  it  is  made  of  two  elements. 
We  may  make  some  carbon  dioxide  in  the  following  manner:  Place  a  heaping  tea- 
spoonful  of  soda  in  a  glass  half  full  of  water  and  add  to  this  a  few  teaspoonfuls  of 
vinegar.  Stir  and  see  what  happens.  This  gas  that  bubbles  up  is  carbon  dioxide. 
What  does  C  O2  tell  you  about  a  molecule  of  gas?  C  says  one  atom  of  carbon 
and  O2  says  two  atoms  of  oxygen.  Test  for  carbon  dioxide  with  lime  water.  Carbon 
dioxide  turns  lime  water  milky.  Lime  water  may  be  made  by  placing  a  piece  of 
unslaked  lime  in  a  bottle,  and  filling  the  bottle  nearly  full  of  water.  Shake  well,  and 
set  aside  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  clear  water  on  top  is  lime  water. 


155 

LESSONS  11  AND  12.— We  have  already  discussed  three  elements  that  plants 
use  in  manufacturing  food.  What  are  the  other  things  that  are  needed!  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  elements  that  plants  need:  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron,  magnesium,  potassium  (usually  in  the  form  of  potash) 
calcium.  All  plants  must  have  all  ten  of  these  elements  if  they  live  and  grow. 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  three  elements  named  above  are  supplied  to  the  plant 
from  the  water  and  air.  Where  do  the  plants  get  all  the  rest?  These  are  obtained 
from  the  soil. 

How  many  of  the  things  furnished  the  plants  by  the  soil  may  be  found  as  ele- 
ments in  the  soil?  If  not,  then  in  what  form  must  they  exist?  All  of  them  exist 
in  the  soil  as  compounds. 

The  compounds  that  exist  in  the  soil  may  be  acids,  alkalies,  or  salts. 

Can  you  think  of  some  things  about  the  home  that  are  acids?  (They  are  sub- 
stances that  are  sour,  such  as  vinegar,  sour  milk,  hydrochloric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  etc. 

Alkalies  are  substances  like  lye  and  potash.     Baking  soda  and  lime  are  alkalies. 

If  you  mix  together  an  alkali  and  an  acid  one  so  acts  upon  the  other  that  the 
characteristics  of  both  are  destroyed.  Put  a  few  tablespoonfuls  of  strong  vinegar 
into  a  cup  or  glass  half  full  of  water.  Taste  it.  Now  put  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  into 
the  sour  water.  After  it  stops  foaming  taste  it.  Is  it  as  sour  as  it  was  before?  We 
say  the  soda  has  neutralized  the  acid. 

A  salt  is  neither  alkali  nor  acid.  Common  table  salt  is  a  good  example  of  this 
kind  of  compound. 

Some  soils  contain  more  acids  than  are  good  for  plants.  If  we  put  an  alkali  of 
some  kind  into  sour  soil  we  may  sweeten  it.  Do  you  know  any  substance  that  some 
farmers  put  on  the  soil  for  this  purpose?  (Lime  is  frequently  used  to  sweeten  soil.) 

LESSON  13. — It  will  be  worth  while  to  have  the  children  make  a  collection  of 
as  many  of  the  elements  and  compounds  used  by  plants  as  they  can  get — such  as  iron, 
sulphur,  lime  which  has  calcium  in  it,  salt  peter  which  contain  nitrogen,  burnt  bones 
which  contain  phosphorus,  epsom  salts  containing  magnesium.  These  should  be  put 
into  small  bottles  and  carefully  labeled. 

Some  time  should  be  taken  at  this  point  for  the  discussion  of  what  is  meant  by 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Of  the  ten  elements  that  all  plants  must  have,  seven  are  sup- 
plied by  the  soil.  Name  these  seven.  Where  do  the  plants  get  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon?  If  any  of  the  elements  supplied  by  the  soil  are  lacking  or  are  not  in  an 
available  form,  we  say  the  soil  is  poor,  or  lacking  in  fertility.  There  are  many 
physical  conditions  also  that  help  to  make  the  soil  fertile.  These  will  be  discussed  in 
a  later  lesson.  But  all  the  proper  physical  conditions  known  will  not  make  a  fertile 
soil  if  it  lacks  any  of  the  elements  that  plants  must  have  in  order  to  manufacture 
their  plant  products. 

LESSONS  14  AND  15. — Most  of  the  substances  used  by  plants  exist  in  such 
abundance  in  the  soil  that  there  is  little  danger  of  their  becoming  exhausted.  Three 
elements,  however,  that  all  farm  crops  use  are  not  so  abundant.  These  are  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  nitrogen.  In  some  places  calcium  also  is  lacking.  If  fields  are  culti- 
vated year  after  year  the  plants  are  constantly  removing  these  substances  from  the 
soil.  If  nothing  is  done  to  return  these  substances  of  course  the  soil  becomes  so 
deficient  in  these  plant  materials  that  plants  cannot  thrive  in  it.  It  is  very  important 
that  farmers  see  to  it  that  the  lack  is  supplied  in  some  way. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  soil  may  be  kept  with  a  sufficient  amount 
of  plant  material.  Among  these  are  the  application  of  barn  manures,  the  plowing 
under  of  green  crops  especially  clovers  and  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

Among  the  commercial  fertilizers,  the  following  are  in  common  use: 

For  nitrogen  dried  blood  is  used.  This  contains  twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent  of 
nitrogen.  Sodium  nitrate  is  also  used,  and  this  contains  about  fifteen  per  cent 
nitrogen. 

For  phosphorus,  steamed  bone  is  used,  which  contains  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
per  cent  of  phosphorus.  Bock  phosphate  is  also  used. 

For  potassium  or  potash,  potassium  chloride  is  used,  which  has  forty  to  forty- 
two  per  cent  of  potassium.  Kainit,  which  contains  twelve  per  cent  of  potassium,  is 
also  used.  Potassium  carbonate  in  the  form  of  wood  ashes  is  also  used  wherever 
this  available. 

Lime  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  either  in  form  of  gypsum,  quicklime,  or  slaked  lime. 
While  most  soils  have  enough  lime  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  plants,  lime  is,  neverthe- 


156 

less,  of  considerable  value  to  any  soil  that  has  become  acid,  as  we  have  already  seen. 
It  also  helps  to  unlock  the  unavailable  potash,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen  in  some  soils 
and  changes  them  to  a  form  available  for  plant  use.  Why  do  soils  become  sour? 

There  are  a  number  of  agencies  that  tend  to  make  soils  sour,  especially  soils  that 
are  constantly  undergoing  cultivation.  In  our  study  of  fungi  we  discussed  the 
bacteria  that  cause  organic  matter  in  the  soil  to  decay.  Now  as  this  matter  decays, 
acids  of  various  kinds  are  given  off.  Another  acid  in  the  soil  is  carbon  dioxide,  some 
of  which  is  carried  into  the  soil  by  the  rain.  Sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  also 
found  in  soils.  Some  of  the  nitric  acid  is  formed  in  the  following  way :  When  stable 
manure  is  plowed  into  the  soil  certain  bacteria  feed  upon  it,  making  it  decay,  and  at 
the  same  time  making  part  of  it  into  ammonia.  Other  bacteria  feed  upon  the 
ammonia,  making  part  of  it  into  nitric  acid.  Some  of  this  acid  remains  in  the  soil, 
but  some  of  it  unites  with  the  potassium  or  magnesium  and  forms  nitrates.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  these  nitrates  that  plants  obtain  the  nitrogen  from  the  soil. 

From  our  study  of  clover  and  other  legumes  we  know  that  nitrogen  may  be  also 
supplied  by  growing  these  plants  that  produce  root  tubercles. 

If  possible  add  to  your  collection  samples  of  the  commercial  fertilizers. 

MARCH 

OUTLINE  FOE  MARCH. — Review  origin  and  kinds  of  soil.  Simple  experi- 
ments in  soil  physics;  review  source  of  water  in  the  soil;  movements  of  water;  forms 
in  which  water  exists  in  the  soil;  value  of  draining  off  free  water;  capillarity;  power 
of  different  kinds  of  soil  to  absorb  water.  Method  of  retaining  the  moisture  in  the 
soil.  Simple  experiments  showing  value  of  soil  mulch;  air  in  soil;  parts  of  plant  con- 
cerned in  getting  water  from  the  soil.  Experiments  to  show  transpiration.  Need  of 
light  and  warmth. 

Oats.  Test  samples  of  seed  for  purity  and  vitality.  Methods  of  planting.  Treat 
seeds  with  formalin  for  smut.  Different  varieties  raised  on  neighborhood.  History 
of  oats.  Uses. 

LESSONS  1  AND  2. — Review  origin  of  soil,  different  types  of  soil.  (Sand,  silt, 
clay,  humus,  loam.  See  Lessons  6  and  8  for  November  in  the  sixth  year.) 

LESSONS  3  AND  4. — Review  experiments  showing  what  becomes  of  the  water 
that  soaks  into  the  ground  after  rains.  (These  are  found  in  Lessons  12  and  13  for 
November  in  the  sixth  year.)  Be  sure  that  the  children  have  a  clear  notion  of  what 
we  mean  free  water  which  fills  the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  soil,  and  capillary 
water  which  clings  to  the  soil  particles  and  makes  it  moist.  They  must  remember 
also  that  it  is  capillary  water  that  plants  use. 

LESSONS  5  AND  6. — Repeat  the  experiment  suggested  in  Lesson  15  of  Novem- 
ber, sixth  year.  The  problems  to  be  solved  here  are,  what  kind  of  soils  have  the 
greatest  capacity  to  hold  rain  water,  which  drains  most  readily,  and  which  is  most 
porous.  To  determine  which  has  the  greatest  capacity  measure  carefully  the  amount 
of  water  put  in  and  the  amount  that  drips  away.  This  experiment  cannot  be  finished 
in  one  day.  It  will  take  several  days  for  the  water  to  get  through  the  clay  or  silt. 

LESSON  7. — Is  there  any  water  left  in  the  soil  after  the  free  water  has  all 
dripped  out?  What  becomes  of  this  capillary  water?  To  answer  this  perform  the 
following  experiment: 

Fill  a  tumbler  with  moist  soil.  Over  it  invert  another  tumbler  the  same  size. 
Set  it  aside.  Examine  after  twenty-four  hours.  What  do  you  find  on  the  inverted 
tumbler?  Where  did  the  moisture  come  from?  What  may  be  done  to  prevent  the 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  soil?  Again,  place  moist  soil  in  the  tumbler.  Put 
on  top  a  layer  of  very  dry,  fine  soil,  one  inch  deep.  Invert  a  tumbler  over  this  as 
before,  and  note  whether  or  not  any  evaporation  takes  place.  If  the  moisture  in  the 
top  layer  of  soil  evaporates,  does  this  in  any  way  affect  the  moisture  farther  down  in 
the  soil? 

Fill  the  lamp  chimneys  once  more  with  the  different  kinds  of  dry  soil.  Stand 
them  in  a  dish  or  pan  of  water  so  that  the  mouth  over  which  the  cheese  cloth  is  tied 
will  rest  about  half  an  inch  in  the  water.  What  happens?  What  makes  the  water 
creep  upward  in  the  soils? 

Hang  a  towel  over  a  desk  so  that  about  an  inch  of  the  corner  will  rest  in  a  dish 
of  water  on  the  floor.  What  takes  place?  The  same  thing  is  happening  in  the 


157 

towel  and  in  the  soil.  The  water  is  slowly  rising.  This  is  due  to  what  is  known  as 
capillarity  or  capillary  attraction.  To  explain  fully  why  this  takes  place  would  take 
us  too  far  into  the  subject  of  physics.  It  is  enough  for  us  to  know  that  liquids  rise 
long  distances  through  small  tubes  or  pores.  We  have  a  good  illustration  of  this  in 
the  ordinary  lamp  wick  which  conveys  oil  from  the  bowl  of  the  lamp  to  the  top  of 
the  wick. 

LESSON  8. — In  which  kind  of  soil  does  the  water  rise  most  rapidly?  In  which 
does  it  reach  the  greatest  height?  If  a  field  has  an  abundance  of  water  in  the  subsoil 
this  may  be  lifted  by  capillarity  to  the  place  where  it  will  be  of  use  to  the  growing 
plant.  Watch  the  rise  of  the  water  in  the  soil  for  several  days.  Vary  the  experiment 
by  mixing  humus  with  clay  in  one  chimney  and  with  sand  in  another.  Put  lumpy 
loam  in  one  and  fine  loam  in  another.  The  last  experiments  show  the  value  of  having 
soil  in  good  physical  condition  if  we  expect  the  capillary  water  to  be  carried  upward 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

LESSOX  9. — Think  of  all  the  ways  in  which  the  water  brought  by  capillarity 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  a  corn  field  is  used  up.  Part  of  it  is  taken  up  by 
the  roots  and  part  evaporates.  If  the  sun  is  very  warm  a  vast  amount  of  water 
evaporates  and  is  lost  to  the  plants.  Is  there  anything  that  may  be  done  to  prevent 
this  loss  of  moisture  during  the  dry,  summer  months?  We  saw  that  a  layer  of  fine 
dry  soil  has  on  the  moist  soil  in  the  tumblers  retarded  evaporation.  Now  place  in  two 
tin  pans  or  pails  (lard  or  syrup  pails  will  serve  the  purpose)  equal  amounts  of  moist 
soil.  Firm  the  soil  slightly  by  jarring  the  pails.  Set  them  side  by  side.  Leave  on«3 
undisturbed,  but  in  the  other  stir  thoroughly  the  upper  two  inches  of  soil  every  day. 
Weigh  at  the  end  of  a  week.  Which  has  retained  more  moisture?  Why?  By  stirring 
the  soil  the  capillary  tubes  are  broken,  the  water  does  not  come  to  the  surface,  and 
cannot  evaporate.  Which  will  keep  the  more  moisture,  a  field  in  which  the  soil  is 
frequently  stirred  on  top  with  a  cultivator  or  one  which  is  left  undisturbed? 

Place  a  lump  of  sugar  so  that  the  lower  part  will  rest  in  some  red  or  black  ink. 
Does  the  ink  rise  by  capillarity  to  the  top  of  the  sugar?  Place  another  lump  beside 
this  one  with  a  layer  of  granulated  sugar  sprinkled  over  the  top.  Does  the  ink  rise 
as  rapidly  through  the  loose  sugar  as  through  the  lump!  Why? 

In  the  same  way,  as  long  as  the  soil  is  left  alone,  the  water  is  constantly  moving 
by  capillarity  to  the  surface  and  evaporating.  A  layer  of  dry,  pulverized  soil  on  top 
stops  the  capillary  flow  of  water  and  moisture  is  conserved  for  the  use  of  the  plants. 
We  call  this  layer  of  dry  soil  on  top  a  soil  mulch.  It  pays  to  cultivate  the  corn  fields 
during  dry  weather  just  to  keep  a  soil  mulch  on  the  field  even  if  there  are  no  weeds 
to  destroy. 

LESSON  10. — When  the  soil  is  loose  on  top  and  there  is  no  free  water  in  it  do 
you  think  there  is  anything  in  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles?  To  answer  this 
question  we  shall  try  a  simple  experiment.  Fill  a  tumbler  or  cup  full  of  dry  soil, 
pour  water  in  one  spot,  watch  for  bubbles  of  air  that  the  water  drives  out.  Keep  on 
pouring  in  water  until  all  the  air  is  out.  Do  you  see  what  has  happened  ?  The  water 
has  taken  the  place  of  the  air  that  was  in  the  spaces.  In  all  the  soil  of  the  fields 
the  spaces  are  filled  with  air.  When  the  water  fills  these  spaces  what  happens  ?  Have 
you  ever  seen  a  corn  or  oats  field  on  which  water  has  stood  for  several  days?  We  say 
they  are  ' '  drowned  out. ' '  That  is  because  all  the  air  has  been  cut  off  by  the  water 
from  the  roots. 

LESSON  11.  OATS. — Discuss  the  value  of  the  oats  crop  in  the  neighborhood. 
How  many  in  the  district  raise  oats?  How  much  do  they  raise?  Who  are  going  to 
plant  oats  this  spring?  What  was  raised  on  the  ground  last  year?  Are  oats  to  be 
sown  alone  or  with  clover?  What  kind  of  oats  are  raised  in  the  district?  Ask  each 
child  to  bring  a  small  sample  of  oats  for  study  next  day. 

LESSON  12. — Study  of  the  grain.  Note  the  chaffy  covering.  Remove  it. 
Notice  the  size,  shape,  and  color.  Compare  the  different  varieties  in  regard  to  these 
points.  Make  a  comparative  study  with  grains  of  wheat  and  rye  if  this  can  be  done. 

Test  the  samples  for  purity.  To  do  this  have  the  pupils  spread  a  small  handful 
of  oats  on  white  paper.  Look  closely  for  foreign  bodies  of  any  sort.  Are  there  any 
weed  seeds?  Can  you  identify  these?  Put  all  the  weed  seeds  and  trash  into  one  pile 
and  all  the  oats  in  another.  About  what  part  of  your  sample  is  pure  oats? 

LESSON  12. — You  want  your  seed  oats  to  germinate.  You  can  not  tell  by 
looking  at  the  sample  whether  they  have  this  power  or  not.  You  must  make  a 


158 

germination  test.  Take  from  the  sample  one  hundred  seeds.  Place  some  moist  sand 
or  soil  in  a  dinner  plate  or  box.  Scatter  the  seeds  over  the  sand,  not  allowing  any 
of  them  to  touch  each  other.  Press  each  seed  gently  into  the  sand  so  that  it  will 
rest  firmly  but  not  be  covered.  Turn  another  plate  over  this  one  or  cover  it  up  with  a 
damp  cloth  and  set  in  a  warm  place.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  sand  moist. 

Watch  for  germination.  How  long  after  planting  before  the  first  sprout  appears? 
Allow  the  grains  to  remain  at  least  one  day  after  germination  begins,  then  remove 
the  sprouted  grains  daily  till  all  have  sprouted  that  will.  By  counting  the  grains 
that  are  left  you  will  be  able  to  determine  the  percent  that  germinated.  If  you  do  not 
wish  to  take  the  time  remove  the  sprouted  grain  each  day,  allow  the  plate  to  stand 
three  or  four  days  after  the  grains  have  begun  to  sprout,  then  remove  those  that 
have  failed  to  germinate  and  compute  your  per  cent  of  germination  as  before.  Did 
all  the  grains  show  equal  vigor  of  germination?  Would  you  expect  to  get  a  good 
stand  of  oats  from  seed  whose  germination  test  was  not  higher  than  sixty  or  seventy 
per  cent? 

LESSON  13.  PLANTING. — Discuss  with  the  children  the  different  methods  of 
sowing  oats.  Who  in  the  district  sows  broadcast?  How  many  drill  oats?  Is  there 
any  advantage  of  one  method  over  another?  Encourage  the  children  to  watch  to  see 
whether  one  method  seems  better  than  the  other.  What  is  the  proper  time  for  plant- 
ing? A  good  rule  is  to  sow  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work 
well.  Discuss  the  number  of  bushels  it  takes  to  sow  an  acre.  You  will  probably  find 
differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  this.  The  average,  however,  is  from  three  to  three 
and  one-half  bushels  per  acre.  Some  recent  experiments  seem  to  show  that  most 
farmers  plant  their  oats  entirely  too  thick  and  that  planting  one  or  one  and  one-half 
bushels  per  acre  will  give  a  better  yield  than  planting  in  the  ordinary  way.  How  deep 
are  oats  planted?  Is  there  any  danger  of  planting  too  deeply?  An  experiment  may 
be  tried.  Place  in  a  mason  jar  an  inch  of  soil  and  plant  close  to  the  glass  on  one 
side  a  grain  of  oats  and  one  or  two  on  the  other  side.  Put  another  inch  of  soil  in 
and  then  two  or  three  more  seeds  close  to  the  glass,  and  so  on  until  the  jar  is  filled 
within  an  inch  of  the  top.  Keep  watered  and  watch  to  see  whether  the  seeds  planted 
near  the  surface  germinate  and  grow  any  better  than  those  planted  near  the  bottom 
of  the  jar. 

LESSON  14. — Has  any  member  of  the  class  ever  seen  any  smut  on  oats  ?  This  is 
a  common  disease  of  the  oats  that  entirely  spoils  the  head.  The  seed  may  be  treated 
for  this  disease  before  planting  and  growth  of  smut  almost  entirely  prevented.  En- 
courage some  of  the  pupils  to  try  treating  the  seed  and  planting  on  their  home  farms. 
Make  a  weak  solution  of  formalin,  one  tablespoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Put  the 
seed  into  a  gunny  sack  and  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  solution  ten  minutes.  Spread  it 
out  on  the  floor  to  dry  and  plant  it  as  soon  as^dry. 

LESSON  15. — History  and  uses  of  oats.  Oats  originally  belonged  to  a  cold 
climate.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  crops  in  northern  regions;  in  Sweden  and  northern 
Russia,  as  well  as  in  the  northern  parts  of  our  own  country.  Some  of  the  best  varie- 
ties originated  in  Sweden  and  Russia.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  may  plant  oats 
so  very  early  in  the  spring.  Have  the  children  watch  the  oats  to  see  whether  the 
frost  injures  it.  Have  them  name  all  the  uses  of  oats;  for  feeding,  the  value  in  the 
rotation  of  crops,  the  uses  of  the  straw.  Are  oats  used  at  all  for  human  food?  In 
some  countries  oats  constitute  one  of  the  staple  foods  in  the  making  of  bread  as  well 
as  porridge. 

LESSON  16. — Watch  the  development  of  the  plant.  Plant  a  little  spot  in  the 
school  yard,  or  all  the  observations  may  be  made  at  home.  How  long  after  planting 
till  the  oats  appear  above  the  ground?  How  low  a  temperature  can  these  young  plants 
stand?  Note  the  habits  of  growth.  Does  one  root  send  up  more  than  one  stem? 
Count  the  number  of  stems  that  you  find  coming  from  one  root. 

APRIL  AND  MAY 

OUTLINE  FOB  APRIL  AND  MAY. — The  icork  of  plants.  Simple  experiments 
to  show  the  relation  of  roots  to  soil,  work  of  stem,  work  of  leaves. 

Methods  used  in  maintaining  fertility  of  soils  of  Illinois;  rotation  of  crops; 
manures;  fertilisers;  cultivation.  Report  on  neighborhood  practice.  Work  of  the 
U.  8.  Department  of  Agriculture.  State  experiment  stations;  send  for  bulletins. 


159 

The  work  of  plants.  Simple  experiments  to  show  the  relation  of  roots  to  soil, 
work  of  stem,  work  of  leaves. 

Girls  study  how  to  arrange  flowers  of  gardens  at  home  and  school.  List  of 
vegetables  that  may  be  raised  in  home  garden.  Select  one  or  two  for  special  study. 

Arrange  vacation  studies  and  experiments. 

NOTE. — In  preparation  for  the  lessons  later  in  the  month  plant  in  cans,  flower 
pots,  or  boxes  some  corn,  oats,  radishes,  peas  or  nasturtiums.  When  the  oats  are 
about  two  inches  high  cover  one-half  as  suggested  in  Lesson  9  of  this  month. 

LESSON  1. — Eeview  the  various  products  that  plants  make;  starch,  sugar,  pro- 
teid,  etc.  (See  February  lessons.)  Try  to  have  the  children  think  of  plants  not  only 
as  living  but  as  working  beings.  They  are  like  factories  since  they  manufacture 
products.  If  they  are  factories  what  equipment  must  they  have?  (Machinery,  raw 
material,  and  power.)  We  have  already  learned  that  the  raw  material  is  supplied 
from  the  air,  the  soil,  and  the  soil  water.  We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  how  the 
plants  do  their  work. 

LESSONS  2  AND  3. — Experiment.  Put  some  moist  blotting  paper  or  sand  on 
a  damp  cloth  in  a  dinner  plate  or  box.  Scatter  over  this  at  some  distance  apart  a 
number  of  radish  or  oats  seeds.  Turn  another  plate  or  piece  of  cloth  over  this  to 
keep  in  the  moisture,  and  put  in  a  warm  place.  Water  if  necessary.  At  the  same 
time  plant  a  few  seeds  in  a  pot  or  can  of  soil.  After  three  or  four  days  examine  the 
plants.  What  do  you  find  on  the  roots?  Those  delicate  threadlike  structures  are  root 
hairs.  On  what  part  of  the  roots  do  you  find  them  most  abundant?  Watch  a  plant 
for  several  days  to  see  whether  any  of  the  hairs  wither  and  die,  and  whether  new  ones 
continue  to  appear.  Are  there  any  at  the  very  tip  of  the  root?  Can  you  see  any 
advantage  in  not  having  root  hairs  here?  (As  the  root  grows  it  must  penetrate  the 
soil.  If  there  were  hairs  on  the  tip  they  would  be  broken  off.)  What  do  you  think  is 
the  use  of  the  root  hairs?  If  the  little  plants  were  growing  in  the  soil  instead  of  on 
blotting  paper  the  root  hairs  would  penetrate  the  spaces  between  the  particles  of  soil. 
Pull  up  one  or  two  of  the  little  plants  that  are  growing  in  the  pot.  Do  any  of  the 
soil  particles  cling  to  the  roots?  They  are  really  clinging  to  the  root  hairs.  Of  course 
in  pulling  up  the  young  plants  you  pulled  off  most  of  the  delicate  hairs.  These  hairs 
are  in  close  contact  with  the  film  water  on  the  soil  particles.  They  are  so  surrounded 
with  this  moisture  that  they  absorb  it;  that  is,  the  moisture  goes  right  through  the 
thin  covering  of  the  root  hair.  We  call  the  process  by  which  liquids  or  gases  pass 
through  a  plant  or  animal  membrane  osmosis.  The  walls  of  the  root  hairs  are  very 
thin  and  by  osmosis  the  soil  water  with  the  plant  materials  passes  readily  through 
them.  At  the  same  time  a  little  of  the  thicker  substance  in  the  root  hairs  passes  out 
into  the  soil. 

LESSON  3. — Eoots  are  so  much  in  need  of  water  to  do  their  work  that  they 
will  grow  rapidly  in  the  direction  of  moisture.  You  may  prove  that  roots  seek 
moisture  by  a  very  simple  experiment.  Trim  a  little  off  the  side  of  a  chalk  box  lid 
so  you  may  push  it  down  into  the  box,  making  a  partition  through  the  middle.  Near 
the  bottom  of  this  partition  cut  or  bore  a  hole  as  large  as  a  half  dollar,  and  tack  a 
piece  of  wire  screening  over  it.  Place  clean  sand  or  soil  in  the  box,  and  plant  corn 
or  oats  on  one  side.  After  the  seeds  have  germinated,  put  a  very  little  water  on  the 
side  of  the  partition  where  the  plants  are  growing;  just  enough  to  keep  them  alive. 
Keep  the  other  side  will  moistened  but  not  wet.  After  two  weeks,  carefully  dig  down 
and  examine  the  roots.  If  your  experiment  has  worked  properly  you  will  find  that  the 
roots  of  the  plants  have  grown  through  the  wire  screen  in  order  to  get  to  the  moisture. 

LESSON  4. — If  a  field  is  not  well  drained  the  young  plants  in  the  spring  will 
not  send  their  roots  very  far  down  into  the  soil.  An  experiment  will  help  to  show  this. 
Procure  two  tin  cans.  In  the  bottom  of  one  punch  holes  for  drainage  and  put  in  a 
few  pebbles  or  cinders.  Leave  the  other  without  drainage.  Fill  each  with  moist  soil 
and  plant  corn  or  beans  or  oats.  Set  them  side  by  side.  Place  exactly  the  same 
amount  of  water  in  each  from  day  to  day.  Do  not  water  too  much.  After  a  few 
weeks  dig  up  the  plants  and  note  the  effect  on  the  roots.  Which  have  sent  their  roots 
farthest  down?  Does  under  drainage  tend  to  make  a  long  or  short  root  system?  The 
children  will  readily  see  that  a  long  root  system  is  an  advantage  to  any  farm  crop. 
Which  plants  will  fare  better  during  the  dry  season,  those  whose  roots  have  grown  to 
a  good  depth  or  those  whose  roots  are  near  the  surface? 


160 

LESSON  5. — We  have  seen  that  thrugh  the  root  hairs  the  soil  water  with  raw 
materials  goes  into  the  roots.  Where  does  this  water  go,  and  what  finally  becomes  of 
it?  Experiment.  Cut  off  a  growing  twig  from  a  maple,  or  box-elder.  Place  the  cut 
stem  in  a  tumbler  half  full  of  water  to  which  you  have  added  a  teaspoonful  of  red  ink. 
Allow  it  to  stand  twenty-four  hours.  With  a  sharp  knife  slice  off  small  sections  of 
the  stem  and  examine  closely.  Through  what  part  of  the  stem  did  the  water  travel? 
This  is  called  the  woody  part  or  wood.  In  all  tree  and  shrub  stems  the  water  travels 
upward  through  the  wood.  In  stems  of  herbs  like  beans  there  is  very  little  wood. 
What  there  is  is  in  small  bundles  around  the  pith.  The  water  travels  upward  through 
these  bundles.  In  a  corn  stem  the  water  travels  upward  through  the  bundles  of  fibers 
that  are  scattered  throughout  the  pith. 

LESSON  6. — Is  all  the  water  taken  into  the  plant  used  in  the  plant?  Experi- 
ment. Cover  with  glazed  or  writing  paper  the  top  of  a  pot  in  which  a  plant  is  grow- 
ing vigorously.  To  do  this  slit  the  paper  to  the  center  and  cut  out  a  space  big  enough 
for  the  stem.  Now  slip  the  paper  around  the  stem  and  tie  it  around  the  top  of  the 
pot.  Turn  a  glass  jar  over  the  plant  and  let  it  stand  in  the  light  a  few  hours.  What 
do  you  find  on  the  glass?  Where  did  the  drops  of  water  come  from?  This  process 
of  giving  off  water  is  called  transpiration.  The  leaves  transpire  constantly.  With  a 
microscope  we  could  find  very  numerous  pores  in  the  thin  skin  of  a  leaf.  These  are 
called  stomates.  The  water  goes  in  at  the  roots,  travels  up  the  stem  into  the  leaves, 
and  most  of  it  is  given  off  into  the  air  through  the  stomates. 

LESSONS  7  AND  8. — We  are  now  ready  to  find  out  something  about  the  way 
in  which  plants  manufacture  their  products.  To  understand  this  we  must  know  some- 
thing about  leaves. 

Examine  a  leaf  of  any  plant.  The  stem  is  the  petiole,  the  expanded  part  is 
the  blade.  Hold  the  leaf  between  you  and  the  light.  What  do  you  see  in  it?  How 
are  the  veins  arranged  in  a  bean  leaf,  maple,  sunflower?  These  are  net-veined  leaves. 
How  are  the  veins  arranged  in  a  corn  leaf?  In  grass?  These  are  parallel  veins. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  veins?  By  discussion  the  value  of  the  veins  in  holding  the  leaf 
spread  out  will  be  brought  out.  Place  a  twig  with  growing  leaves  in  a  tumbler  of 
water  colored  with  red  ink.  After  twenty-four  hours  examine  the  petiole  and  the 
veins.  The  red  ink  in  the  veins  tells  you  that  the  veins  carry  water  to  all  parts  of 
the  leaf.  If  you  can  procure  a  thick  leaf,  as  live-forever,  tulip,  or  hepatica,  have  the 
pupils  peel  off  a  little  of  the  skin  or  epidermis.  Even  a  thin  leaf  may  have  a  little 
of  the  covering  removed,  enough  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the  entire  leaf  is 
covered  with  a  thin,  almost  transparent  skin.  What  is  under  the  skin?  This  green 
granular  mass  is  largely  made  up  of  a  substance  called  chlorophyll.  If  the  pupil 
could  see  a  cross  section  of  a  leaf  highly  magnified  he  would  find  it  built  up  of  cells. 
Each  cell  has  a  thin  wall  and  contains  green,  roundish  bodies  called  chlorophyll  bodies, 
and  a  moss  of  colorless  protoplasm.  These  form  the  machinery  that  manufacture 
plant  food.  But  just  as  any  machinery  must  have  power  to  make  it  run,  so  must  the 
machinery  of  the  leaf.  What  is  the  power? 

LESSON  9. — Experiment:  Fill  a  box  or  dinner  plate  with  soil  and  sow  some 
oats  or  wheat  seeds.  After  the  grains  are  sprouted  cover  one-half  the  plants  with  a 
box  or  tin  can.  Give  all  the  plants  the  same  amount  of  water.  After  a  week  com- 
pare the  plants  grown  under  cover  with  those  grown  in  the  light.  What  do  the  former 
lack?  What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  the  ability  of  the  plants  to  make  chlorophyll 
without  light?  Recall  the  color  of  grass  that  has  been  covered  with  a  board.  What 
is  the  color  of  potato  sprouts  in  a  cellar?  Without  light,  plants  cannot  make  chloro- 
phyll, and  without  chlorophyll  no  starch  can  be  made.  The  light  is  the  power  that 
runs  the  machinery,  but  the  chlorophyll  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  power  and 
the  machine.  In  some  way  is  succeeds  in  hitching  them  together  so  that  they  may 
do  their  work. 

LESSON  10. — We  remember  that  starch  is  made  out  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
from  water  and  carbon  from  air,  and  that  proteids  contain  these  three  elements  with 
the  addition  of  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.,  which  come  from  the  soil. 

The  leaves  take  in  the  carbon  dioxide  through  their  stomates.  What  must  be 
done  with  this  compound  before  the  plant  can  use  the  carbon?  It  must  be  separated 
into  its  elements,  oxygen  and  carbon.  If  the  protoplasm  decomposes  the  carbon  diox- 
ide and  uses  the  carbon,  what  becomes  of  the  oxygen?  It  goes  out  of  the  leaf  into 
the  air.  Therefore,  when  a  plant  is  actively  engaged  in  manufacturing  starch  it  is 


161 

taking  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  and  giving  out  oxygen.     Why  cannot  this  process 
be  carried  on  during  the  night? 

LESSON  11. — What  do  the  plants  do  with  the  starch,  proteids,  and  oils  that 
they  make  ?  The  starch,  by  a  process  something  like  digestion  in  our  bodies,  is  changed 
into  sugar,  and  this  and  the  other  foods  are  conveyed  in  liquid  form  from  the  leaves 
to  all  parts  of  the  plants.  They  are  used  in  the  growth  of  these  parts. 

Do  plants  grow  at  night?  Measure  some  of  your  corn  plants  at  night  and  again 
in  the  morning  to  see  how  much  they  grow.  While  plants  cannot  make  food  at  night, 
they  can  use  the  food  that  they  have  made  during  the  daylight  for  growth  during  the 
darkness.  Some  of  the  food  is  stored  for  future  use.  Eecall  the  study  of  the  potato, 
corn  seeds,  biennial  roots,  etc. 

Dig  up  some  corn  plants  that  have  been  growing  two  or  three  weeks.  Examine 
the  grains.  What  has  become  of  their  contents? 

LESSON  12. — Plants  need  something  besides  food  in  order  to  live  and  grow. 
They  are  like  animals  in  this  respect.  They  must  have  air  to  breathe  as  well  as  food 
to  eat.  They  cannot  live  without  oxygen  any  more  than  you  can.  Not  only  the 
leaves  but  the  stems  and  roots  also  need  oxygen.  They  carry  on  respiration  just  as 
we  do,  that  is,  they  use  the  oxygen  in  the  cells  and  give  out  carbon  dioxide  as  a  waste 
product. 

Have  the  pupils  summarize  all  the  work  of  the  plants.  What  the  roots  do,  the 
stems,  and  the  leaves. 

LESSON  13.  HOW  TO  MAINTAIN  THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL.— Now 
that  we  know  something  about  the  needs  of  plants  and  the  work  they  do  we  are  ready 
to  consider  what  may  be  done  not  only  to  produce  good  crops  but  to  insure  the  pro- 
duction of  good  crops  in  the  future. 

One  thing  to  be  considered  is  tillage.  This  is  of  two  kinds:  the  breaking  up  or 
plowing  preparation  for  the  seed,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  when  the  crop  is 
growing.  The  plowing  may  be  done  in  the  fall  or  spring.  Can  you  think  of  any 
advantage  of  fall  plowing?  What  effect  has  freezing  upon  the  soil?  There  may  be 
some  disadvantages  in  fall  plowing  in  some  localities.  Where  there  is  a  subsoil  of 
sand,  heavy  rains  may  wash  out  or  leach  from  the  soil  some  of  the  soluble  compounds 
that  with  the  spring  plowing  might  have  been  saved  for  the  plants.  One  of  the  most 
important  things  to  think  about  in  tillage  is  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  so  that 
it  may  be  fine  and  fit  for  seeds. 

Experiment:  Plant  some  corn  seeds  in  a  pot  containing  coarse,  lumpy  soil.  In 
another  plant  seeds  containing  the  same  kind  of  soil  that  has  been  made  fine.  Water 
both.  In  which  do  the  seeds  germinate  first?  Which  plants  thrive  best  after  germi- 
nation? 

What  are  some  of  the  other  benefits  due  to  tillage?  It  increases  the  depth  of 
the  soil.  Which  is  better,  shallow  plowing  or  deep?  Why?  If  year  after  year  only 
the  upper  three  or  four  inches  of  soil  are  turned  over,  this  will  become  so  depleted 
of  its  plant  foods  that  it  will  be  "worn  out."  Besides  the  lower  layer  of  soil  will 
become  so  packed  and  sour  that  it  will  be  utterly  unfit  for  the  plant  roots.  Tillage 
also  aids  in  the  saving  of  moisture.  How?  Think  back  to  your  experiment  with  soil 
mulch.  It  also  loosens  the  soil  so  that  it  will  hold  more  air  and  be  better  ventilated. 
It  kills  out  the  weeds  and  thus  prevents  a  loss  of  plant  foods  and  water.  By  breaking 
up  the  soil  particles  it  renders  the  plant  foods  more  available.  It  turns  under  vegeta- 
tion and  thus  increases  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil. 

LESSON  14. — The  second  thing  to  consider  in  helping  the  soil  to  supply  the 
needs  of  plants  is  drainage.  We  have  already  seen  some  of  the  advantages  of  under 
drainage.  It  renders  the  soil  more  porous.  In  increases  the  temperature  in  the  spring. 
It  gives  an  opportunity  for  better  ventilation.  It  results  in  a  deeper  root  system. 
Proper  tillage  and  drainage  then  are  two  very  important  forces  in  maintaining  good 
physical  conditions  of  the  soil. 

The  rotation  of  crops  is  another  important  consideration.  Agriculturists  are 
coming  to  believe  more  and  more  that  to  grow  the  same  kind  of  crop  in  a  field  near 
after  year  will  result  in  absolute  ruin  to  the  soil.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this. 
One  is  that  certain  kinds  of  crops  use  more  of  the  kind  of  plant  material  than  of 
others.  After  a  number  of  years  the  soil  is  so  lacking  in  this  particular  compound 
that  it  is  difficult  to  grow  any  kind  of  a  crop  in  it.  Another  probable  reason  is  that 
each  plant  gives  out  a  certain  amount  of  organic  waste  matter  into  the  soil.  When 


162 

a  plant  has  been  grown  for  a  term  of  years  in  one  locality,  the  soil  becomes  so  full 
of  this  poisonous  waste  that  the  plant  can  no  longer  thrive  in  it.  This  substance  is 
not  so  poisonous  to  other  plants  and  by  a  wise  rotation  of  crops  this  waste  need  not 
result  in  disadvantage  to  the  plants.  Eotation  also  gives  an  opportunity  to  kill  out 
weeds  that  are  likely  to  persist  if  the  same  crop  is  grown  year  after  year.  It  also 
helps  to  get  rid  of  certain  insect  pests.  Every  farmer  must  settle  for  himself  the 
crops  that  are  to  be  rotated;  but  he  should  adopt  a  definite  system  of  plant  rotation. 
A  three-year  rotation  is  carried  on  successfully  in  some  places.  This  consists  of  oats, 
or  wheat,  clover,  corn.  Have  the  class  tell  what  is  practiced  in  their  neighborhood. 

LESSONS  15  AND  16. — One  important  result  that  comes  with  crop  rotation  is 
the  increase  of  humus.  Humus  is  added  in  the  plowing  under  of  the  oats  or  wheat 
stubble,  as  well  as  the  stems  and  roots  of  the  clover.  The  value  of  humus  in  any  soil 
cannot  be  overestimated.  From  our  experiments  what  do  you  know  of  the  effect  of 
humus  on  the  capacity  of  soils  to  hold  moisture?  It  helps  to  keep  the  moisture  in. 
Besides,  this  humus  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil,  enriches  it,  and  helps  to  make 
available  to  plants  other  materials  that  are  locked  up  in  the  soil. 

What  are  the  sources  of  humus?  We  have  already  mentioned  the  plowing  under 
of  stubble  and  clover.  What  substance  necessary  for  plants  does  the  clover  and  other 
legumes  add  to  the  soil?  (Nitrogen.)  Other  crops  besides  legumes  are  sometimes 
raised  and  plowed  under  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  humus.  Such  crops  are  called 
green  manures.  Eye  is  frequently  used  in  this  way.  Stable  manure  is  by  far  the 
best  source  of  humus.  It  not  only  improves  the  physical  condition  in  the  soil  but 
adds  some  of  the  most  important  substances  which  plants  use,  phosphorus,  nitrogen, 
and  potassium.  It  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  fertilizers. 

One  thing  more  is  done  in  many  places  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and 
that  is  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers.  This  we  have  already  discussed  in  our  study 
of  soil  chemistry.  Just  what  plant  materials  may  be  lacking  in  any  soil  can  be  told 
only  by  testing  the  soil,  not  in  the  laboratory  but  in  the  field.  Some  very  interesting 
experiments  have  been  made  by  the  Agricultural  College  at  Urbana  to  show  the  value 
of  commercial  fertilizers. 

To  sum  up  the  whole  story  then.  In  order  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
we  must  see  to  it  that  the  soil  is  kept  in  good  physical  condition  by  proper  tillage, 
drainage,  and  the  addition  of  humus,  and  that  the  plant  materials  that  are  removed 
by  the  plants  to  manufacture  their  food  be  returned  in  good  measure  in  the  form  of 
stable  manures,  leguminous  plants,  green  manures,  or  commercial  fertilizers. 

LESSON  17.  FAKM  NOTES. — It  will  be  worth  while  to  take  one  recitation  to 
discuss  the  activities  on  the  farm  for  the  school  year,  using  the  calendars  that  have 
been  kept.  Encourage  the  boys  to  continue  the  calendar  during  the  summer. 

LESSON  18.  THE  GAEDEN. — Encourage  the  girls  to  plant  flower  gardens  at 
home.  Consult  catalogues  for  kinds  to  plant.  Discuss  methods  of  planting  and 
arranging  flowers  as  suggested  in  the  lessons  for  the  sixth  year. 

Encourage  the  boys  to  plant  corn  or  oats  for  a  contest  in  the  fall.  If  corn  is 
to  be  grown  each  boy  should  plant  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  acre. 


INDEX 


A                Page 
Acid 152 

Aid  to  injured 22,  87 

Air..  12,  13,  69,  122,  154 

In   soil 157 

Air  currents 34,  84 

Alcohol.... 35,  47,  69,  86 

Alfalfa    135 

Alkali    155 

Anatomy 36,    51,    68, 

69,   86 

Annual  plants 114 

Ants    43 

Apple  and  apple-tree 

18,  94,  113,  127 

Apple  pie,  apple  seeds, 
decay,  of  apples, 
core,  pulp,  skin, 
storage,  dried  ap- 
ples   18 

Aquarium 26,  70 

Arbor  Day 133 

Architect 40 

Arteries    86 

Aster 17,42 

Athletics   52,  88 

Awnings 13 

Axle    .  ..150 


Babcock  milk    test . .  144 

Bacteria 82,  136,  149 

Barns 21,  146 

Barnyard  fowls.. 46,  125 

Barometer  132 

Bath    88 

Bedbugs    80 

Bees 43 

Beet    58,  68 

Berries 75,   et   al 

Biennials 57,  67,  114 

Birds,  all  grades, 
spring    and    fall. 

Bird  calendar   71 

Birds  of  prey 124 

Bitter  sweet    28 

Blackberry    75,  96 

Blight    137 

Blood 86,  et  al 

Body,  all  grades,  win- 
ter months. 
Body  temperature  34,  86 

Boiling    53 

Bones    50 

Booklets   127 

Bouquets    17 

Braconids 98 

Breathing 11,  36,  69 

Brick 40 


Page 

Broken  bones 36 

Brown  creeper   36 

Bruises    36 

Bulba   43,  59 

Bumble-bee  98 

Burdock    31 

Burns    21 

Burs 31 

Butter 12,  142 


Cabbage 71,  73 

Cabbage  worm   73 

Calendar,  bird 71 

For  farm  work 98 

Tree 57 

Candle 70 

Capillaries    86 

Capillarity 86,  156 

Carbon  dioxide 121 

Cardinal  points 22 

Carpenter 40 

Carpets   69 

Carrot   71 

Caterpillars    32 

Cat 13 

Cellar    69 

Cement 40  et  al 

Chart  of  autumn 

leaves    17 

Weather 9  et  al 

Cheese 142 

Cherry  tree   94 

Chest  expansion 70 

Chemistry  of  cleaning  69 

Chickens 25 

Chimney   34 

Christmas  tree 11 

Circulation 86 

City  water  supply 81 

Clay 76,156 

Cleanliness. .  .11,  22,  etc. 

Climbing  plants 29 

Cloth   11 

Clothing 11,  13 

Cloudiness    121 

Clouds 19 

Clover 17,134 

Coal 11,    34 

Cockroaches 61 

Cold   frame    71 

Cocoon    33 

Coloration. 

Of  birds 24 

Of  leaves   17 

Combustion    83 

Cones 48 

Convection  currents  122 


Page 

Cooking 12,  35,  69 

Corn  17,  94,  106,  128,  131 
Corn, 

Foods  from   9 

Exhibit 114,  142 

Kernel 152 

Plant 42 

Competitive      grow- 
ing   131 

Plot   162 

Cosmos    42 

Cow 12,  142 

Crayfish    26 

Crib   131 

Crickets    61 

Cultivation   158 

Cuts 22 

Cuttings 73,  75,  92 


Daffodils 43 

Dahlia  bulbs 61 

Dahlias   59 

Dairy  industry 142 

Dampers 34 

Dandelion   17,  71 

Deer    45 

Dentist    47 

Derrick   150 

Digestion 69,  et  seq. 

Digestive  system, 

See  digestion. 
Dipper, 

(constellation)  19,  120 
Disinfectants  and  dis- 
infection   149 

Ditches   75 

Dog 23,  46 

Dollhouse 7,  10,  13 

Domestic  animals 

18,  142,  145 

Drafts 34 

Drag    116 

Drainage   78 

Drinking 53  et  seq. 

Drinking   Cups 82 

Driving  horses...  19,  145 
Dust  .  ..69 


Earthworm 161 

Eating 12,  47,  69 

Electrician 40 

Electricity   35 

Elements    154 

Elm    57 

Emergencies    36 

English  sparrow 35 


164 


Page 

Evaporation   53 

Evergreens   11,  49 

Exercise 36,  51 

Eyes  85 


Farm  animals 145 

Farm  lands 76 

Farm  machinery 150 

Feathers 35,  125 

Feeding  of  cattle 

18,  142  et  seq. 

Fertility  of  soil 161 

Fertilizers    161 

Fertilization    106 

Fibers 51,  68 

Field  corn 42,  106 

Filtering 156 

Fire   117 

In  the  home 34 

Fireplace    12 

Freewater    156 

Floors 69 

Flower, 

Arrangement 132 

Beds  132 

Bud    57 

Festival  61 

Gardens 39  et   seq. 

Parts ...71  et  al. 

Flowers 132  et  al. 

Fly   42,  80 

Fungi   on   flies 149 

Food    9,  47,  62 

Foodstuffs   47,  124 

Forage  crops 138 

Formation  of  soil ....  76 

Force  pump 123 

Forestry   89 

Formalin   158 

Fossils 75 

Four  o  'clock   15 

Fox    46 

Freezing  point   34 

Frog    26 

Frost   9,  53,  94 

Fruit 94,  112,  127 

Fuel 12,  117 

Fungi   138 

Furs 46 

O 

Galls    57 

Games 11 

Garden  9,  14, 

15,    26,    42,   61    et    al. 
Gardens  of  wild  flow- 
ers   26,  42,  60 

Garden  plan  71,  95,  et  al. 

Garden  weeds 74 

Gas 35,  53,  83 

Gasoline   .  . .  84 


Page 

Gasoline  engine   151 

Gas  vents    53 

Geranium   73 

Germ  diseases 149 

Germination  tests 

128,   156 

Glaciation   76 

Glands 69,  70  et  seq. 

Gnawers  (mammals) .  .45 

Golden  rod 17,  42 

Good  roads  115 

Gourds 15,  25,  28 

Grafting 127 

Grape 75,  94 

Grass 70,  139  et  al. 

Grasshoppers  . . .  .61,  100 

Grass  seed 70,  71,  139 

Gravel    75,  156 

Ground  beetle 105 

H 

Hail 53 

Hall  owe  'en    10 

Hardware 40,  69 

Harrows   150 

Harvest.... 9,  17,  73,  98 

Hay 17,  138 

Health,  all  grades. 

Health  officer   149 

Hearing 13  et  seq. 

Heart 86  et  seq. 

Heating 11,   12,   35 

Systems  117 

Hen    25 

Holidays, 

National  and  state . .  8 

Historic  trees 57,  94 

History    of   a    stone.. 75 
Home 7  et  seq. 

Yards   71 

Honey  bee 43 

Horse   19,  145 

Hotbed 71,  72 

House  building 40 

House  cleaning 13 

House  drains 78 

House  fly 43 

House  furnishings   ....  7 

Housekeeping    7 

Hygiene,  all  grades. 


Ice    54 

Incubator 126 

Insecticides    95 

Insects  17,  25,  61,  95,  100 
Ivy   28 


Jacketed  stove 119 

Jackscrew   150 

Joists    40 


Kaffir  corn 139 

Kennels    21 

Kerosene  lamp 84 

Kitchen   69 

Kindling 11 

Knots    67 


Ladybirds   98 

Ladyslipper   15 

Landscape  garden- 
ing   131,  162 

Larvae 61,  99  et  seq. 

Laundry   69 

Lawn 70 

Lawn  weeds    71 

Leaf  mold   26 

Leather 56 

Leaves 17,  48  et  seq. 

Length  of  days 19 

Lettuce   59 

Levers 150 

Light....  12,  13,  83,  159 

Lighting    83,  85 

Liquid  pressure 123 

Loam  77,  156 

Locust 61 

Lumber 40 

Lymph    87 

M 

Malaria  9,  121 

Manure   161 

Maple 17,  66 

Marigold   42 

Mason   40 

Mastification.  .12  et  seq. 

Meadow  lark 133 

Menu 69 

Mercury    34 

Metals 69 

Migration  of  birds... 96 

Millet    139 

Milk 12,  143 

Milking    12 

Milky   way    19 

Minerals 47,  74 

Minnows 26 

Moisture 13 

Moulds    137 

Money 98 

Months    8 

Moon's  changes   20 

Morning   glory 29 

Mosquito 64,  82 

Muscle 50,  51  et  al. 

Mushroom   137 

N 

Nails   40 

Nasturtium    .  . .  15 


165 


Pape 
Nesting, 

Of  robins 16 

Of  sparrows ....  24,  35 

Nitrogen 123 

North  star 20,  120 

Nosebleed 22 

Nuthatch    38 

Nutritive  processes. .  .69 
Nut  trees   33 


Oak  34 

Oats 17,  157,  160 

Foods  from  9 

Oil 35,  84 

In  nuts  33 

Oiled  roads 116 

Organs  of  body .69  et  seq. 

Orion 19,  120 

Orderliness 7  et  seq. 

Out-door  observations 

7  et  seq. 

Oxygen  123 


Paper  animals 21 

Parsnip 59,  68 

Pasteboard  barn,  poul- 
try  house,    etc 21 

Paths  of  sun  and 

moon 20,  120 

Peach  tree 94 

Pear    94 

Peas 39 

Pebbles 75 

Pepsin 69 

Personal  habits 

22  et  seq. 

Perspiration   88 

Petroleum   84 

Pets 10  et  seq. 

Physical  education. . . . 

51  et  seq. 

Pig 147 

Pigeon 24 

Pinks    70 

Plant  food 152 

Planting   13 

Planting  machinery 

Ill,    150 

Planting  methods ....  133 

Plants   8  et  seq. 

Plows   150 

Plumber    39 

Plum    94 

Pond  life 26,  et  seq. 

Ponies 19 

Popcorn 15,  21,  42 

Posture 22 

Potatoes   91 

Poultry  raising 124 


Pape 

Pruning 95,  127 

Public  buildings,  care 

of,  uses  of,  etc 8 

Public  health 149 

Pulleys    150 

Pulse 86 

Pump    123 

Pumpkin 10,  39 

Pure  food 149 

Pure  milk    149 

Pure  water 81,  149 


Rabbit     45 

Radish   59,  17 

Rafters   40 

Raindrops    23 

Rainfall    121 

Rape    139 

Raspberry    74 

Rat    79 

Refrigerator  55 

Repairs   13 

Road  construction   ..115 

Road   drainage 116 

Roadsides 95 

Roads    115 

Robin   16 

Rocks   156 

Root  hairs 66,  159 

Roots   57,  67 

Rot    137 

Rotation  of  crops...  161 

Rugs 69 

Rusts 137 

S 

Saliva    47,  85,  86 

Salsify   71 

Sand 75,  136 

Sanitation 55,  149 

Sap   66 

Scab   89 

Scrap  book 45.  124 

Screens 13 

Seeds 17,  31,  39,  48 

Catalogues 58,  70 

Coats .40 

Corn   152 

Testing 29 

Storage  of 28 

Separator   143 

Shade    84 

Sheep   148 

Shoots 39 

Shrubs 132,  159 

Sills  40 

Silo 142 

Silt   75,  137 

Skin    87 

Sky  studies 19,  120 

Smut 137,  156 


Page 

Snow   18,  20,  54 

Soft  maple 24 

Softwood 40 

Soil..  13,  26,  76,  131,  156 

For  bulbs 43 

Mulch    161 

Solutions   153 

Sorghum 139 

Sparrows 35,  72,  134 

Spraying   127 

State  experiment  sta- 
tions   158 

Sterilization    149 

Stomach    69 

Storing  of  food 17 

Stove 34 

Straw 137 

Stubblefields    136 

Strawberry   65 

Studding    40 

Suction  pump   123 

Summer  experiences 

17  et  seq. 

Sweet  corn 42 

Sweet  peas 29,  39,  40 

Sunflower 39,  42 

Sunshine 34 

Survey   136 


Table  manners  12 

Tadpoles  26,  70 

Teeth 12,  47,  et  seq. 

Temperance 

12,  22,  53  et  al. 

Temperature..  117,  et  al. 

Tendons  51 

Tendrills 29,  et  al 

Thanksgiving 10,  18 

Market  46 

Thistle  17,  42 

Thrasher 134 

Tile 82,  137 

Tinner  40 

Tobacco. .  .36,  69,  et  seq. 
Tomato 28,  39,  41,  71 

Worm 42 

Tools 13  et  seq. 

Transpiration  156 

Transplanting  94 

Trees  17,  89,  131,  et  al. 

Census 94 

Trillium  71 

Tubercles 134,  140 

Tubers 59,  91 

Tulips 43 

Turkey  46 

Turnip  71 

Turtles 26 

Twigs 57,  66,  et  al. 

Typhoid  82 


166 


IT  Page 

Underground  stems 

59,  70,  134 

U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture    158 


Vacation  studies 

135,  136,  162 

Vacuum  cleaner 69 

Vapor  53 

Vegetable  exhibit 

74,  etal. 

Vegetables 

9,  28,  131,  159,  et  al. 

Veins  86 

Ventilation 12,  122 

Village  lots 75 

Vines 132,29 


W 

Walking  stick 

(insect)    61 

Warblers  96 

..43 


Page 


Water 53,  156 

Supply 81 

Vapor  122 

Weather  bureau 120 

Weather   chart 

....9,10,11,12,22,23 

Weather  maps 80 

Weather  record. .  .  80,  121 

Weed  herbarium 74 

Weeds  114 

Wells 55,  81 

Wheat 110,  131 

Food  from  9 

Wheel  .  ..150 


Page 

Wild  cucumbers 28 

Wild  flowers 

17,26,  60,  42 

Wild  mammals  of  111.  45 

Windmill 82 

Willow 17,  24 

Wind 22,  121 

Breaks 11 

Wind  scattered  seeds 

30 

Winter  clothing 11 

Shelter 11 

Wood 12,  35,  69 

Woodbine  28 

Woods 57,  et  al. 

Woodpeckers 35,  38 


Yard..  13,  71,  131,  et  seq. 


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